mumbai also known as bombay, the official name until 1995 is the capital city of the indian state of maharashtra.

it is the most populous city in india and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, with an estimated city population of 18.4 million.

along with the neighbouring regions of the mumbai metropolitan region, it is one of the most populous urban regions in the world and the second most populous metropolitan area in india, with a population of 20.7 million as of 2011.

mumbai lies on the west coast of india and has a deep natural harbour.

in 2008, mumbai was named an alpha world city.

it is also the wealthiest city in india, and has the highest gdp of any city in south, west, or central asia.

mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in india.

the seven islands that came to constitute mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies.

for centuries, the islands were under the control of successive indigenous empires before being ceded to the portuguese and subsequently to the british east india company when in 1661 king charles ii married the portuguese catherine of braganza, and as part of her dowry charles received the ports of tangier and seven islands of bombay.

during the mid-18th century, bombay was reshaped by the hornby vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea.

along with construction of major roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845, transformed bombay into a major seaport on the arabian sea.

bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development.

during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the indian independence movement.

upon india's independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into bombay state.

in 1960, following the samyukta maharashtra movement, a new state of maharashtra was created with bombay as the capital.

mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of india.

it is also one of the world's top ten centres of commerce in terms of global financial flow, generating 6.16% of india's gdp and accounting for 25% of industrial output, 70% of maritime trade in india mumbai port trust and jnpt , and 70% of capital transactions to india's economy.

the city houses important financial institutions such as the reserve bank of india, the bombay stock exchange, the national stock exchange of india, the sebi and the corporate headquarters of numerous indian companies and multinational corporations.

it is also home to some of india's premier scientific and nuclear institutes like barc, npcl, irel, tifr, aerb, aeci, and the department of atomic energy.

the city also houses india's hindi bollywood and marathi film and television industry.

mumbai's business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over india, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures.

etymology the name mumbai is derived from or - name of the patron goddess kuladevi mumbadevi of the native agri, koli and somvanshi kshatriya and ' meaning "mother" in the marathi language, which is the mother tongue of the kolis and the official language of maharashtra.

the oldest known names for the city are kakamuchee and galajunkja these are sometimes still used.

in 1508, portuguese writer gaspar correia used the name bombaim, in his lendas da "legends of india" .

this name possibly originated as the old portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning "good little bay", and bombaim is still commonly used in portuguese.

in 1516, portuguese explorer duarte barbosa used the name tana-maiambu tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of thane and maiambu to mumbadevi.

other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include mombayn 1525 , bombay 1538 , bombain 1552 , bombaym 1552 , monbaym 1554 , mombaim 1563 , mombaym 1644 , bambaye 1666 , bombaiim 1666 , bombeye 1676 , boon bay 1690 , and bon bahia.

after the english gained possession of the city in the 17th century, the portuguese name was anglicised as bombay.

ali muhammad khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the gujarat province, in the mirat-i-ahmedi 1762 referred to the city as manbai.

by the late 20th century, the city was referred to as mumbai or mambai in the indian statewise official languages of marathi, konkani, gujarati, kannada and sindhi, and as bambai in hindi.

the government of india officially changed the english name to mumbai in november 1995.

this came at the insistence of the marathi nationalist shiv sena party, which had just won the maharashtra state elections, and mirrored similar name changes across the country and particularly in maharashtra.

according to slate magazine, "they argued that 'bombay' was a corrupted english version of 'mumbai' and an unwanted legacy of british colonial rule."

slate also said "the push to rename bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen marathi identity in the maharashtra region."

while the city is still referred to as bombay by some of its residents and by indians from other regions, mention of the city by a name other than mumbai has been controversial, resulting in emotional outbursts sometimes of a violently political nature.

a resident of mumbai is called mumbaikar in the marathi language, in which the suffix kar means resident of.

the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to mumbai.

history early history mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands bombay island, parel, mazagaon, mahim, colaba, worli, and old woman's island also known as little colaba .

it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited.

pleistocene sediments found along the coastal areas around kandivali in northern mumbai suggest that the islands were inhabited since the stone age.

perhaps at the beginning of the common era 2,000 years ago , or possibly earlier, they came to be occupied by the koli fishing community.

in the third century bce, the islands formed part of the maurya empire, during its expansion in the south, ruled by the buddhist emperor, ashoka of magadha.

the kanheri caves in borivali were excavated in the mid-third century bce, and served as an important centre of buddhism in western india during ancient times.

the city then was known as heptanesia ancient greek a cluster of seven islands to the greek geographer ptolemy in 150 ce.

the mahakali caves in andheri were built between the 1st century bce and the 6th century ce.

between the second century bce and ninth century ce, the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties satavahanas, western kshatrapas, abhiras, vakatakas, kalachuris, konkan mauryas, chalukyas and rashtrakutas, before being ruled by the silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260.

some of the oldest edifices in the city built during this period are, jogeshwari caves between 520 and 525 , elephanta caves between the sixth to seventh century , walkeshwar temple 10th century , and banganga tank 12th century .

king bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital in mahikawati present day mahim .

the pathare prabhus, among the earliest known settlers of the city, were brought to mahikawati from saurashtra in gujarat around 1298 by bhimdev.

the delhi sultanate annexed the islands in and controlled it until 1407.

during this time, the islands were administered by the muslim governors of gujarat, who were appointed by the delhi sultanate.

the islands were later governed by the independent gujarat sultanate, which was established in 1407.

the sultanate's patronage led to the construction of many mosques, prominent being the haji ali dargah in worli, built in honour of the muslim saint haji ali in 1431.

from 1429 to 1431, the islands were a source of contention between the gujarat sultanate and the bahamani sultanate of deccan.

in 1493, bahadur khan gilani of the bahamani sultanate attempted to conquer the islands but was defeated.

portuguese and british rule the mughal empire, founded in 1526, was the dominant power in the indian subcontinent during the mid-16th century.

growing apprehensive of the power of the mughal emperor humayun, sultan bahadur shah of the gujarat sultanate was obliged to sign the treaty of bassein with the portuguese empire on 23 december 1534.

according to the treaty, the seven islands of bombay, the nearby strategic town of bassein and its dependencies were offered to the portuguese.

the territories were later surrendered on 25 october 1535.

the portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their roman catholic religious orders in bombay.

they called the islands by various names, which finally took the written form bombaim.

the islands were leased to several portuguese officers during their regime.

the portuguese franciscans and jesuits built several churches in the city, prominent being the st. michael's church at mahim 1534 , st. john the baptist church at andheri 1579 , st. andrew's church at bandra 1580 , and gloria church at byculla 1632 .

the portuguese also built several fortifications around the city like the bombay castle, castella de aguada castelo da aguada or bandra fort , and madh fort.

the english were in constant struggle with the portuguese vying for hegemony over bombay, as they recognised its strategic natural harbour and its natural isolation from land-attacks.

by the middle of the 17th century the growing power of the dutch empire forced the english to acquire a station in western india.

on 11 may 1661, the marriage treaty of charles ii of england and catherine of braganza, daughter of king john iv of portugal, placed the islands in possession of the english empire, as part of catherine's dowry to charles.

however, salsette, bassein, mazagaon, parel, worli, sion, dharavi, and wadala still remained under portuguese possession.

from 1665 to 1666, the english managed to acquire mahim, sion, dharavi, and wadala.

in accordance with the royal charter of 27 march 1668, england leased these islands to the english east india company in 1668 for a sum of per annum.

the population quickly rose from 10,000 in 1661, to 60,000 in 1675.

the islands were subsequently attacked by yakut khan, the siddi admiral of the mughal empire, in october 1672, rickloffe van goen, the governor-general of dutch india on 20 february 1673, and siddi admiral sambal on 10 october 1673.

in 1687, the english east india company transferred its headquarters from surat to bombay.

the city eventually became the headquarters of the bombay presidency.

following the transfer, bombay was placed at the head of all the company's establishments in india.

towards the end of the 17th century, the islands again suffered incursions from yakut khan in .

the portuguese presence ended in bombay when the marathas under peshwa baji rao i captured salsette in 1737, and bassein in 1739.

by the middle of the 18th century, bombay began to grow into a major trading town, and received a huge influx of migrants from across india.

later, the british occupied salsette on 28 december 1774.

with the treaty of surat 1775 , the british formally gained control of salsette and bassein, resulting in the first anglo-maratha war.

the british were able to secure salsette from the marathas without violence through the treaty of purandar 1776 , and later through the treaty of salbai 1782 , signed to settle the outcome of the first anglo-maratha war.

from 1782 onwards, the city was reshaped with large-scale civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass.

this project, known as hornby vellard, was completed by 1784.

in 1817, the british east india company under mountstuart elphinstone defeated baji rao ii, the last of the maratha peshwa in the battle of khadki.

following his defeat, almost the whole of the deccan came under british suzerainty, and was incorporated into the bombay presidency.

the success of the british campaign in the deccan marked the end of all attacks by native powers.

by 1845, the seven islands coalesced into a single landmass by the hornby vellard project via large scale land reclamation.

on 16 april 1853, india's first passenger railway line was established, connecting bombay to the neighbouring town of thana now thane .

during the american civil war , the city became the world's chief cotton-trading market, resulting in a boom in the economy that subsequently enhanced the city's stature.

the opening of the suez canal in 1869 transformed bombay into one of the largest seaports on the arabian sea.

in september 1896, bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week.

about 850,000 people fled bombay and the textile industry was adversely affected.

as the capital of the bombay presidency, the city witnessed the indian independence movement, with the quit india movement in 1942 and the royal indian navy mutiny in 1946 being its most notable events.

independent india after india's independence in 1947, the territory of the bombay presidency retained by india was restructured into bombay state.

the area of bombay state increased, after several erstwhile princely states that joined the indian union were integrated into the state.

subsequently, the city became the capital of bombay state.

on april 1950, municipal limits of bombay were expanded by merging the bombay suburban district and bombay city to form the greater bombay municipal corporation.

the samyukta maharashtra movement to create a separate maharashtra state including bombay was at its height in the 1950s.

in the lok sabha discussions in 1955, the congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state.

the states reorganisation committee recommended a bilingual state for with bombay as its capital in its 1955 report.

bombay citizens' committee, an advocacy group of leading gujarati industrialists lobbied for bombay's independent status.

following protests during the movement in which 105 people lost their lives in clashes with the police, bombay state was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 may 1960.

gujarati-speaking areas of bombay state were partitioned into the state of gujarat.

maharashtra state with bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of marathi-speaking areas of bombay state, eight districts from central provinces and berar, five districts from hyderabad state, and numerous princely states enclosed between them.

as a memorial to the martyrs of the samyukta maharashtra movement, flora fountain was renamed as hutatma chowk martyr's square , and a memorial was erected.

the following decades saw massive expansion of the city and its suburbs.

in the late 1960s, nariman point and cuffe parade were reclaimed and developed.

the bombay metropolitan region development authority bmrda was established on 26 january 1975 by the government of maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co-ordination of development activities in the bombay metropolitan region.

in august 1979, a sister township of new bombay was founded by the city and industrial development corporation cidco across the thane and raigad districts to help the dispersal and control of bombay's population.

the textile industry in bombay largely disappeared after the widespread 1982 great bombay textile strike, in which nearly 250,000 workers in more than 50 textile mills went on strike.

mumbai's defunct cotton mills have since become the focus of intense redevelopment.

the jawaharlal nehru port, which currently handles % of india's containerised cargo, was commissioned on 26 may 1989 across the creek at nhava sheva with a view to de-congest bombay harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city.

the geographical limits of greater bombay were coextensive with municipal limits of greater bombay.

on 1 october 1990, the greater bombay district was bifurcated to form two revenue districts namely, bombay city and bombay suburban, though they continued to be administered by same municipal administration.

from 1990 to 2010, there has been an increase in violence in the hitherto largely peaceful city.

following the demolition of the babri masjid in ayodhya, the city was rocked by the hindu-muslim riots of in which more than 1,000 people were killed.

on 12 march 1993, a series of 13 co-ordinated bombings at several city landmarks by islamic extremists and the bombay underworld resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries.

in 2006, 209 people were killed and over 700 injured when seven bombs exploded on the city's commuter trains.

in 2008, a series of ten coordinated attacks by armed terrorists for three days resulted in 173 deaths, 308 injuries, and severe damage to several heritage landmarks and prestigious hotels.

the blasts that occurred at the opera house, zaveri bazaar, and dadar on 13 july 2011 were the latest in the series of terrorist attacks in mumbai.

mumbai is the commercial capital of india and has evolved into a global financial hub.

for several decades it has been the home of india's main financial services, and a focus for both infrastructure development and private investment.

from being an ancient fishing community and a colonial centre of trade, mumbai has become south asia's largest city and home of the world's most prolific film industry.

geography mumbai consists of two distinct regions mumbai city district and mumbai suburban district, which form two separate revenue districts of maharashtra.

the city district region is also commonly referred to as the island city or south mumbai.

the total area of mumbai is 603.4 km2 233 sq mi .

of this, the island city spans 67.79 km2 26 sq mi , while the suburban district spans 370 km2 143 sq mi , together accounting for 437.71 km2 169 sq mi under the administration of municipal corporation of greater mumbai mcgm .

the remaining areas belong to various defence establishments, the mumbai port trust, the atomic energy commission and the borivali national park, which are out of the jurisdiction of the mcgm.

the mumbai metropolitan region which includes portions of thane, palghar and raigad districts in addition to greater mumbai, covers an area of 4,355 km2 1681.5 sq mi .

mumbai lies at the mouth of the ulhas river on the western coast of india, in the coastal region known as the konkan.

it sits on salsette island sashti island , which it partially shares with the thane district.

mumbai is bounded by the arabian sea to the west.

many parts of the city lie just above sea level, with elevations ranging from 10 m 33 ft to 15 m 49 ft the city has an average elevation of 14 m 46 ft .

northern mumbai salsette is hilly, and the highest point in the city is 450 m 1,476 ft at salsette in the ranges.

the sanjay gandhi national park borivali national park is located partly in the mumbai suburban district, and partly in the thane district, and it extends over an area of 103.09 km2 39.80 sq mi .

apart from the bhatsa dam, there are six major lakes that supply water to the city vihar, lower vaitarna, upper vaitarna, tulsi, tansa and powai.

tulsi lake and vihar lake are located in borivili national park, within the city's limits.

the supply from powai lake, also within the city limits, is used only for agricultural and industrial purposes.

three small rivers, the dahisar river, poinsar or poisar and ohiwara or oshiwara originate within the park, while the polluted mithi river originates from tulsi lake and gathers water overflowing from vihar and powai lakes.

the coastline of the city is indented with numerous creeks and bays, stretching from the thane creek on the eastern to madh marve on the western front.

the eastern coast of salsette island is covered with large mangrove swamps, rich in biodiversity, while the western coast is mostly sandy and rocky.

soil cover in the city region is predominantly sandy due to its proximity to the sea.

in the suburbs, the soil cover is largely alluvial and loamy.

the underlying rock of the region is composed of black deccan basalt flows, and their acidic and basic variants dating back to the late cretaceous and early eocene eras.

mumbai sits on a seismically active zone owing to the presence of 23 fault lines in the vicinity.

the area is classified as a seismic zone iii region, which means an earthquake of up to magnitude 6.5 on the richter magnitude scale may be expected.

climate mumbai has a tropical climate, specifically a tropical wet and dry climate aw under the climate classification, with seven months of dryness and peak of rains in july.

the cooler season from december to february is followed by the summer season from march to june.

the period from june to about the end of september constitutes the south-west monsoon season, and october and november form the post-monsoon season.

between june and september, the south west monsoon rains lash the city.

pre-monsoon showers are received in may.

occasionally, north-east monsoon showers occur in october and november.

the maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 3,452 mm 136 in for 1954.

the highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 944 mm 37 in on 26 july 2005.

the average total annual rainfall is 2,146.6 mm 85 in for the island city, and 2,457 mm 97 in for the suburbs.

the average annual temperature is 27.2 81 , and the average annual precipitation is 2,167 mm 85 in .

in the island city, the average maximum temperature is 31.2 88 , while the average minimum temperature is 23.7 75 .

in the suburbs, the daily mean maximum temperature range from 29.1 84 to 33.3 92 , while the daily mean minimum temperature ranges from 16.3 61 to 26.2 79 .

the record high is 42.2 108 set on 14 april 1952, and the record low is 7.4 45 set on 27 january 1962.

economy mumbai is india's largest city by population and is the financial and commercial capital of the country as it generates 6.16% of the total gdp.

it serves as an economic hub of india, contributing 10% of factory employment, 25% of industrial output, 33% of income tax collections, 60% of customs duty collections, 20% of central excise tax collections, 40% of india's foreign trade and ,000 crore us 590 million in corporate taxes.

along with the rest of india, mumbai has witnessed an economic boom since the liberalisation of 1991, the finance boom in the mid-nineties and the it, export, services and outsourcing boom in 2000s.

although mumbai had prominently figured as the hub of economic activity of india in the 1990s, the mumbai metropolitan region is presently witnessing a reduction in its contribution to india's gdp.

as of 2015, mumbai's metro area gdp ppp was estimated at 368 billion.

many of india's numerous conglomerates including larsen & toubro, state bank of india sbi , life insurance corporation of india lic , tata group, godrej and reliance , and five of the fortune global 500 companies are based in mumbai.

this is facilitated by the presence of the reserve bank of india rbi , the bombay stock exchange bse , the national stock exchange of india nse , and financial sector regulators such as the securities and exchange board of india sebi .

until the 1970s, mumbai owed its prosperity largely to textile mills and the seaport, but the local economy has since then diversified to include finance, engineering, diamond-polishing, healthcare and information technology.

the key sectors contributing to the city's economy are finance, gems & jewellery, leather processing, it and ites, textiles, and entertainment.

nariman point and bandra kurla complex bkc are mumbai's major financial centres.

despite competition from bangalore, hyderabad and pune, mumbai has carved a niche for itself in the information technology industry.

the santacruz electronic export processing zone seepz and the international infotech park navi mumbai offer excellent facilities to it companies.

state and central government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce.

mumbai also has a large unskilled and semi-skilled self-employed population, who primarily earn their livelihood as hawkers, taxi drivers, mechanics and other such blue collar professions.

the port and shipping industry is well established, with mumbai port being one of the oldest and most significant ports in india.

dharavi, in central mumbai, has an increasingly large recycling industry, processing recyclable waste from other parts of the city the district has an estimated 15,000 single-room factories.

mumbai has been ranked sixth among top ten global cities on the billionaire count with 28 and 46000 millionaires, with total wealth around 820 billion 48th on the worldwide centres of commerce index 2008, seventh in the list of "top ten cities for billionaires" by forbes magazine april 2008 , and first in terms of those billionaires' average wealth.

as of 2008, the globalization and world cities study group gawc has ranked mumbai as an "alpha world city", third in its categories of global cities.

mumbai is the third most expensive office market in the world, and was ranked among the fastest cities in the country for business startup in 2009.

civic administration greater mumbai, an area of 603 square kilometres 233 sq mi , consisting of the mumbai city and mumbai suburban districts, extends from colaba in the south, to mulund and dahisar in the north, and mankhurd in the east.

its population as per the 2011 census was 12,442,373.

it is administered by the municipal corporation of greater mumbai mcgm sometimes referred to as the brihanmumbai municipal corporation , formerly known as the bombay municipal corporation bmc .

the mcgm is in charge of the civic and infrastructure needs of the metropolis.

the mayor is chosen through indirect election by the councillors from among themselves for a term of two and half years.

the municipal commissioner is the chief executive officer and head of the executive arm of the municipal corporation.

all executive powers are vested in the municipal commissioner who is an indian administrative service ias officer appointed by the state government.

although the municipal corporation is the legislative body that lays down policies for the governance of the city, it is the commissioner who is responsible for the execution of the policies.

the commissioner is appointed for a fixed term as defined by state statute.

the powers of the commissioner are those provided by statute and those delegated by the corporation or the standing committee.

the municipal corporation of greater mumbai was ranked 9th out of 21 cities for best governance & administrative practices in india in 2014.

it scored 4.0 on 10 compared to the national average of 3.3.

the two revenue districts of mumbai come under the jurisdiction of a district collector.

the collectors are in charge of property records and revenue collection for the central government, and oversee the national elections held in the city.

the mumbai police is headed by a police commissioner, who is an indian police service ips officer.

the mumbai police is a division of the maharashtra police, under the state home ministry.

the city is divided into seven police zones and seventeen traffic police zones, each headed by a deputy commissioner of police.

the traffic police is a semi-autonomous body under the mumbai police.

the mumbai fire brigade, under the jurisdiction of the municipal corporation, is headed by the chief fire officer, who is assisted by four deputy chief fire officers and six divisional officers.

the mumbai metropolitan region development authority mmrda is responsible for infrastructure development and planning of mumbai metropolitan region.

mumbai is the seat of the bombay high court, which exercises jurisdiction over the states of maharashtra and goa, and the union territories of daman and diu and dadra and nagar haveli.

mumbai also has two lower courts, the small causes court for civil matters, and the sessions court for criminal cases.

mumbai also has a special terrorist and disruptive activities tada court for people accused of conspiring and abetting acts of terrorism in the city.

politics mumbai had been a traditional stronghold and birthplace of the indian national congress, also known as the congress party.

the first session of the indian national congress was held in bombay from december 1885.

the city played host to the indian national congress six times during its first 50 years, and became a strong base for the indian independence movement during the 20th century.

the 1960s saw the rise of regionalist politics in bombay, with the formation of the shiv sena on 19 june 1966, out of a feeling of resentment about the relative marginalisation of the native marathi people in bombay.

shiv sena switched from 'marathi cause' to larger 'hindutva cause' in 1985 and joined hands with bhartiya janata party bjp in same year.

the congress had dominated the politics of bombay from independence until the early 1980s, when the shiv sena won the 1985 bombay municipal corporation elections.

in 1989, the bharatiya janata party bjp , a major national political party, forged an electoral alliance with the shiv sena to dislodge the congress in the maharashtra legislative assembly elections.

in 1999, several members left the congress to form the nationalist congress party ncp but later allied with the congress as part of an alliance known as the democratic front.

currently, other parties such as maharashtra navnirman sena mns , samajwadi party sp , bahujan samaj party bsp , and several independent candidates also contest elections in the city.

in the indian national elections held every five years, mumbai is represented by six parliamentary constituencies north, north west, north east, north central, south central, and south.

a member of parliament mp to the lok sabha, the lower house of the indian parliament, is elected from each of the parliamentary constituencies.

in the 2014 national elections, all six parliamentary constituencies were won by the bjp and shiv sena in alliance, with both parties winning three seats each.

in the maharashtra state assembly elections held every five years, mumbai is represented by 36 assembly constituencies.

a member of the legislative assembly mla to the maharashtra vidhan sabha legislative assembly is elected from each of the assembly constituencies.

in the 2014 state assembly elections, out of the 36 assembly constituencies, 15 were won by the bjp, 14 by the shiv sena and 5 by the congress.

elections are also held every five years to elect corporators to power in the mcgm.

the corporation comprises 227 directly elected councillors representing the 24 municipal wards, five nominated councillors having special knowledge or experience in municipal administration, and a mayor whose role is mostly ceremonial.

in the 2012 municipal corporation elections, out of the 227 seats, the shiv sena-bjp alliance secured 107 seats, holding power with the support of independent candidates in the mcgm, while the congress-ncp alliance bagged 64 seats.

the tenure of the mayor, deputy mayor, and municipal commissioner is two and a half years.

transport public transport public transport systems in mumbai include the mumbai suburban railway, monorail, metro, brihanmumbai electric supply and transport best buses, black-and-yellow meter taxis, auto rickshaws and ferries.

suburban railway and best bus services together accounted for about 88% of the passenger traffic in 2008.

auto rickshaws are allowed to operate only in the suburban areas of mumbai, while taxis are allowed to operate throughout mumbai, but generally operate in south mumbai.

taxis and rickshaws in mumbai are required by law to run on compressed natural gas cng , and are a convenient, economical, and easily available means of transport.

rail the mumbai suburban railway, popularly referred to as locals forms the backbone of the city's transport system.

it is operated by the central railway and western railway zones of the indian railways.

mumbai's suburban rail systems carried a total of 6.3 million passengers every day in 2007.

trains are overcrowded during peak hours, with nine-car trains of rated capacity 1,700 passengers, actually carrying around 4,500 passengers at peak hours.

the mumbai rail network is spread at an expanse of 319 route kilometres.

191 rakes train-sets of 9 car and 12 car composition are utilised to run a total of 2,226 train services in the city.

the mumbai monorail and mumbai metro have been built and are being extended in phases to relieve overcrowding on the existing network.

the monorail opened in early february 2014.

the first line of the mumbai metro opened in early june 2014.

mumbai is the headquarters of two zones of the indian railways the central railway cr headquartered at chhatrapati shivaji terminus formerly victoria terminus , and the western railway wr headquartered at churchgate.

mumbai is also well connected to most parts of india by the indian railways.

long-distance trains originate from chhatrapati shivaji terminus, dadar, lokmanya tilak terminus, mumbai central, bandra terminus, andheri and borivali.

bus mumbai's bus services carried over 5.5 million passengers per day in 2008, which dropped to 2.8 million in 2015.

public buses run by best cover almost all parts of the metropolis, as well as parts of navi mumbai, mira-bhayandar and thane.

the best operates a total of 4,608 buses with cctv cameras installed, ferrying 4.5 million passengers daily over 390 routes.

its fleet consists of single-decker, double-decker, vestibule, low-floor, disabled-friendly, air-conditioned and euro iii compliant diesel and compressed natural gas powered buses.

best introduced air-conditioned buses in 1998.

best buses are red in colour, based originally on the routemaster buses of london.

maharashtra state road transport corporation msrtc, also known as st buses provide intercity transport connecting mumbai with other towns and cities of maharashtra and nearby states.

the navi mumbai municipal transport nmmt and thane municipal transport tmt also operate their buses in mumbai, connecting various nodes of navi mumbai and thane to parts of mumbai.

buses are generally favoured for commuting short to medium distances, while train fares are more economical for longer distance commutes.

the mumbai darshan is a tourist bus service which explores numerous tourist attractions in mumbai.

bus rapid transit system brts lanes have been planned throughout mumbai.

though 88% of the city's commuters travel by public transport, mumbai still continues to struggle with traffic congestion.

mumbai's transport system has been categorised as one of the most congested in the world.

water water transport in mumbai consists of ferries, hovercrafts and catamarans.

services are provided by both government agencies as well as private partners.

hovercraft services plied briefly in the late 1990s between the gateway of india and cbd belapur in navi mumbai.

they were subsequently scrapped due to lack of adequate infrastructure.

road mumbai is served by national highway 3, national highway 4, national highway 8, national highway 17 and national highway 222 of india's national highways system.

the mumbai-pune expressway was the first expressway built in india.

the eastern freeway was opened in 2013.

the mumbai nashik expressway, mumbai-vadodara expressway, are under construction.

the bandra-worli sea link bridge, along with mahim causeway, links the island city to the western suburbs.

the three major road arteries of the city are the eastern express highway from sion to thane, the sion panvel expressway from sion to panvel and the western express highway from bandra to dahisar.

mumbai has approximately 1,900 km 1,181 mi of roads.

there are five tolled entry points to the city by road.

mumbai had about 721,000 private vehicles as of march 2014, 56,459 black and yellow taxis as of 2005, and 106,000 auto rickshaws, as of may 2013.

air the chhatrapati shivaji international airport formerly sahar international airport is the main aviation hub in the city and the second busiest airport in india in terms of passenger traffic.

it handled 36.6 million passengers and 694,300 tonnes of cargo during fy .

an upgrade plan was initiated in 2006, targeted at increasing the capacity of the airport to handle up to 40 million passengers annually and the new terminal t2 was opened in february 2014.

the proposed navi mumbai international airport to be built in the kopra-panvel area has been sanctioned by the indian government and will help relieve the increasing traffic burden on the existing airport.

the juhu aerodrome was india's first airport, and now hosts the bombay flying club and a heliport operated by state-owned pawan hans.

sea mumbai is served by two major ports, mumbai port trust and jawaharlal nehru port trust, which lies just across the creek in navi mumbai.

mumbai port has one of the best natural harbours in the world, and has extensive wet and dry dock accommodation facilities.

jawaharlal nehru port, commissioned on 26 may 1989, is the busiest and most modern major port in india.

it handles % of the country's total containerised cargo.

ferries from ferry wharf in mazagaon allow access to islands near the city.

the city is also the headquarters of the western naval command, and also an important base for the indian navy.

utility services under colonial rule, tanks were the only source of water in mumbai, with many localities having been named after them.

the mcgm supplies potable water to the city from six lakes, most of which comes from the tulsi and vihar lakes.

the tansa lake supplies water to the western suburbs and parts of the island city along the western railway.

the water is filtered at bhandup, which is asia's largest water filtration plant.

india's first underground water tunnel was completed in mumbai to supply water to the bhandup filtration plant.

about 700 million litres of water, out of a daily supply of 3500 million litres, is lost by way of water thefts, illegal connections and leakages, per day in mumbai.

almost all of mumbai's daily refuse of 7,800 metric tonnes, of which 40 metric tonnes is plastic waste, is transported to dumping grounds in gorai in the northwest, mulund in the northeast, and to the deonar dumping ground in the east.

sewage treatment is carried out at worli and bandra, and disposed of by two independent marine outfalls of 3.4 km 2.1 mi and 3.7 km 2.3 mi at bandra and worli respectively.

electricity is distributed by the brihanmumbai electric supply and transport best undertaking in the island city, and by reliance energy, tata power, and the maharashtra state electricity distribution co. ltd mahavitaran in the suburbs.

consumption of electricity is growing faster than production capacity.

power supply cables are underground, which reduces pilferage, thefts and other losses.

cooking gas is supplied in the form of liquefied petroleum gas cylinders sold by state-owned oil companies, as well as through piped natural gas supplied by mahanagar gas limited.

the largest telephone service provider is the state-owned mtnl, which held a monopoly over fixed line and cellular services up until 2000, and provides fixed line as well as mobile wll services.

mobile phone coverage is extensive, and the main service providers are vodafone essar, airtel, mtnl, loop mobile, reliance communications, idea cellular and tata indicom.

both gsm and cdma services are available in the city.

mumbai, along with the area served by telephone exchanges in navi mumbai and kalyan is classified as a metro telecom circle.

many of the above service providers also provide broadband internet and wireless internet access in mumbai.

as of 2014, mumbai had the highest number of internet users in india with 16.4 million users.

architecture the architecture of the city is a blend of gothic revival, indo-saracenic, art deco, and other contemporary styles.

most of the buildings during the british period, such as the victoria terminus and bombay university, were built in gothic revival style.

their architectural features include a variety of european influences such as german gables, dutch roofs, swiss timbering, romance arches, tudor casements, and traditional indian features.

there are also a few indo-saracenic styled buildings such as the gateway of india.

art deco styled landmarks can be found along the marine drive and west of the oval maidan.

mumbai has the second largest number of art deco buildings in the world after miami.

in the newer suburbs, modern buildings dominate the landscape.

mumbai has by far the largest number of skyscrapers in india, with 956 existing buildings and 272 under construction as of 2009.

the mumbai heritage conservation committee mhcc , established in 1995, formulates special regulations and by-laws to assist in the conservation of the city's heritage structures.

mumbai has two unesco world heritage sites, the chhatrapati shivaji terminus and the elephanta caves.

in the south of mumbai, there are colonial-era buildings and soviet-style offices.

in the east are factories and some slums.

on the west coast are former-textile mills being demolished and skyscrapers built on top.

there are 31 buildings taller than 100 m, compared with 200 in shanghai, 500 in hong kong and 500 in new york.

demographics according to the 2011 census, the population of mumbai city was 12,479,608.

the population density is estimated to be about 20,482 persons per square kilometre.

the living space is 4.5sq metre per person.

mumbai metropolitan region was home to 20,748,395 people by 2011.

as per 2011 census, greater mumbai, the area under the administration of the mcgm, has a literacy rate of 94.7%, higher than the national average of 86.7%.

the number of slum-dwellers is estimated to be 9 million, up from 6 million in 2001, that is, 62% of all mumbaikars live in informal slums.

the sex ratio in 2011 was 838 females per 1,000 males in the island city, 857 in the suburbs, and 848 as a whole in greater mumbai, all numbers lower than the national average of 914 females per 1,000 males.

the low sex ratio is partly because of the large number of male migrants who come to the city to work.

residents of mumbai call themselves mumbaikar, mumbaiite, bombayite or bombaiite.

mumbai has a large polyglot population like any other metropolitan city of india.

sixteen major languages of india are also spoken in mumbai, most common being marathi, hindi, gujarati and english.

english is extensively spoken and is the principal language of the city's white collar workforce.

a colloquial form of hindi, known as bambaiya a blend of marathi, hindi, gujarati, konkani, urdu, indian english and some invented words is spoken on the streets.

mumbai suffers from the same major urbanisation problems seen in many fast growing cities in developing countries widespread poverty and unemployment, poor public health and poor civic and educational standards for a large section of the population.

with available land at a premium, mumbai residents often reside in cramped, relatively expensive housing, usually far from workplaces, and therefore requiring long commutes on crowded mass transit, or clogged roadways.

many of them live in close proximity to bus or train stations although suburban residents spend significant time travelling southward to the main commercial district.

dharavi, asia's second largest slum if karachi's orangi town is counted as a single slum is located in central mumbai and houses between 800,000 and one million people in 2.39 square kilometres 0.92 sq mi , making it one of the most densely populated areas on earth with a population density of at least 334,728 persons per square kilometre.

the number of migrants to mumbai from outside maharashtra during the decade was 1.12 million, which amounted to 54.8% of the net addition to the population of mumbai.

the number of households in mumbai is forecast to rise from 4.2 million in 2008 to 6.6 million in 2020.

the number of households with annual incomes of 2 million rupees will increase from 4% to 10% by 2020, amounting to 660,000 families.

the number of households with incomes from million rupees is also estimated to increase from 4% to 15% by 2020.

according to report of central pollution control board cpcb 2016 mumbai is the noisiest city in india before lucknow, hyderabad and delhi.

ethnic groups and religions the religious groups represented in mumbai as of 2011 include hindus 65.99% , muslims 20.65% , buddhists 4.85% , jains 4.10% , christians 3.27% , sikhs 0.58% , with parsis and jews making up the rest of the population.

the linguistic ethnic demographics are maharashtrians 42% , gujaratis 19% , with the rest hailing from other parts of india.

native christians include east indian catholics, who were converted by the portuguese during the 16th century, while goan and mangalorean catholics also constitute a significant portion of the christian community of the city.

jews settled in bombay during the 18th century.

the bene israeli jewish community of bombay, who migrated from the konkan villages, south of bombay, are believed to be the descendants of the jews of israel who were shipwrecked off the konkan coast, probably in the year 175 bce, during the reign of the greek ruler, antiochus iv epiphanes.

mumbai is also home to the largest population of parsi zoroastrians in the world, numbering about 60,000 though with a sharply declining population.

parsis migrated to india from pars persia iran following the muslim conquest of persia in the seventh century.

the oldest muslim communities in mumbai include the dawoodi bohras, ismaili khojas, and konkani muslims.

culture mumbai's culture is a blend of traditional festivals, food, music, and theatres.

the city offers a cosmopolitan and diverse lifestyle with a variety of food, entertainment, and night life, available in a form and abundance comparable to that in other world capitals.

mumbai's history as a major trading centre has led to a diverse range of cultures, religions, and cuisines coexisting in the city.

this unique blend of cultures is due to the migration of people from all over india since the british period.

mumbai is the birthplace of indian phalke laid the foundations with silent movies followed by marathi the oldest film broadcast took place in the early 20th century.

mumbai also has a large number of cinema halls that feature bollywood, marathi and hollywood movies.

the mumbai international film festival and the award ceremony of the filmfare awards, the oldest and prominent film awards given for hindi film industry in india, are held in mumbai.

despite most of the professional theatre groups that formed during the british raj having disbanded by the 1950s, mumbai has developed a thriving "theatre movement" tradition in marathi, hindi, english, and other regional languages.

contemporary art is featured in both government-funded art spaces and private commercial galleries.

the government-funded institutions include the jehangir art gallery and the national gallery of modern art.

built in 1833, the asiatic society of bombay is one of the oldest public libraries in the city.

the chhatrapati shivaji maharaj vastu sangrahalaya formerly the prince of wales museum is a renowned museum in south mumbai which houses rare ancient exhibits of indian history.

mumbai has a zoo named jijamata udyaan formerly victoria gardens , which also harbours a garden.

the rich literary traditions of the city have been highlighted internationally by booker prize winners salman rushdie, aravind adiga.

marathi literature has been modernised in the works of mumbai-based authors such as mohan apte, anant kanekar, and gangadhar gadgil, and is promoted through an annual sahitya akademi award, a literary honour bestowed by india's national academy of letters.

mumbai residents celebrate both western and indian festivals.

diwali, holi, eid, christmas, navratri, good friday, dussera, moharram, ganesh chaturthi, durga puja and maha shivratri are some of the popular festivals in the city.

the kala ghoda arts festival is an exhibition of a world of arts that encapsulates works of artists in the fields of music, dance, theatre, and films.

a week-long annual fair known as bandra fair, starting on the following sunday after 8 september, is celebrated by people of all faiths, to commemorate the nativity of mary, mother of jesus, on 8 september.

the banganga festival is a two-day music festival, held annually in the month of january, which is organised by the maharashtra tourism development corporation mtdc at the historic banganga tank in mumbai.

the elephanta every february on the elephanta dedicated to classical indian dance and music and attracts performers from across the country.

public holidays specific to the city and the state include maharashtra day on 1 may, to celebrate the formation of maharashtra state on 1 may 1960, and gudi padwa which is the new year's day for marathi people.

beaches are a major tourist attraction in the city.

the major beaches in mumbai are girgaum chowpatty, juhu beach, dadar chowpatty, gorai beach, marve beach, versova beach, madh beach, aksa beach, and manori beach.

most of the beaches are unfit for swimming, except girgaum chowpatty and juhu beach.

essel world is a theme park and amusement centre situated close to gorai beach, and includes asia's largest theme water park, water kingdom.

adlabs imagica opened in april 2013 is located near the city of khopoli off the mumbai-pune expressway.

media mumbai has numerous newspaper publications, television and radio stations.

marathi dailies enjoy the maximum readership share in the city and the top marathi language newspapers are maharashtra times, navakaal, lokmat, loksatta, mumbai chaufer, saamana and sakaal.

popular marathi language magazines are saptahik sakaal, grihashobhika, lokrajya, lokprabha & chitralekha.

popular english language newspapers published and sold in mumbai include the times of india, mid-day, hindustan times, dna india, and the indian express.

newspapers are also printed in other indian languages.

mumbai is home to asia's oldest newspaper, bombay samachar, which has been published in gujarati since 1822.

bombay durpan, the first marathi newspaper, was started by balshastri jambhekar in mumbai in 1832.

numerous indian and international television channels can be watched in mumbai through one of the pay tv companies or the local cable television provider.

the metropolis is also the hub of many international media corporations, with many news channels and print publications having a major presence.

the national television broadcaster, doordarshan, provides two free terrestrial channels, while three main cable networks serve most households.

the wide range of cable channels available includes zee marathi, zee talkies, etv marathi, star pravah, mi marathi, dd sahyadri all marathi channels , news channels such as abp majha, ibn-lokmat, zee 24 taas, sports channels like espn, star sports, national entertainment channels like colors, sony, zee tv and star plus, business news channels like cnbc awaaz, zee business, et now and bloomberg utv.

news channels entirely dedicated to mumbai include sahara samay mumbai.

zing a popular bollywood gossip channel is also based out of mumbai.

satellite television dth has yet to gain mass acceptance, due to high installation costs.

prominent dth entertainment services in mumbai include dish tv and tata sky.

there are twelve radio stations in mumbai, with nine broadcasting on the fm band, and three all india radio stations broadcasting on the am band.

mumbai also has access to commercial radio providers such as sirius.

the conditional access system cas started by the union government in 2006 met a poor response in mumbai due to competition from its sister technology direct-to-home dth transmission service.

bollywood, the hindi film industry based in mumbai, produces around films every year.

the name bollywood is a blend of bombay and hollywood.

the 2000s saw a growth in bollywood's popularity overseas.

this led filmmaking to new heights in terms of quality, cinematography and innovative story lines as well as technical advances such as special effects and animation.

studios in goregaon, including film city, are the location for most movie sets.

the city also hosts the marathi film industry which has seen increased popularity in recent years, and tv production companies.

education schools schools in mumbai are either "municipal schools" run by the mcgm or private schools run by trusts or individuals , which in some cases receive financial aid from the government.

the schools are affiliated with either of the following boards maharashtra state board msbshse the all-india council for the indian school certificate examinations cisce the national institute of open schooling nios the central board for secondary education cbse the international baccalaureate ib the international general certificate of secondary education igcse .

marathi or english is the usual language of instruction.

the primary education system of the mcgm is the largest urban primary education system in asia.

the mcgm operates 1,188 primary schools imparting primary education to 485,531 students in eight languages marathi, hindi, gujarati, urdu, english, tamil, telugu, and kannada .

the mcgm also imparts secondary education to 55,576 students through its 49 secondary schools.

higher education under the 10 2 3 4 plan, students complete ten years of schooling and then enroll for two years in junior college, where they select one of three streams arts, commerce, or science.

this is followed by either a general degree course in a chosen field of study, or a professional degree course, such as law, engineering and medicine.

most colleges in the city are affiliated with the university of mumbai, one of the largest universities in the world in terms of the number of graduates.

the university of mumbai is one of the premier universities in india.

it was ranked 41 among the top 50 engineering schools of the world by america's news broadcasting firm business insider in 2012 and was the only university in the list from the five emerging brics nations viz brazil, russia, india, china and south africa.

moreover, the university of mumbai was ranked 5th in the list of best universities in india by india today in 2013 and ranked at 62 in the qs brics university rankings for 2013, a ranking of leading universities in the five brics countries brazil, russia, india, china and south africa .

its strongest scores in the qs university rankings brics are for papers per faculty 8th , employer reputation 20th and citations per paper 28th .

it was ranked 10th among the top universities of india by qs in 2013.

with 7 of the top ten indian universities being purely science and technology universities, it was india's 3rd best multi disciplinary university in the qs university ranking.

the indian institute of technology bombay , veermata jijabai technological institute vjti , university institute of chemical technology uict which are india's premier engineering and technology schools, and sndt women's university are the other autonomous universities in mumbai.

thadomal shahani engineering college is the first and the oldest private engineering college affiliated to the federal university of mumbai and is also pioneered to be the first institute in the city's university to offer undergraduate level courses in computer engineering, information technology, biomedical engineering and biotechnology.

grant medical college established in 1845 and seth g.s.

medical college are the leading medical institutes affiliated with sir jamshedjee jeejeebhoy group of hospitals and kem hospital respectively.

mumbai is also home to national institute of industrial engineering nitie , jamnalal bajaj institute of management studies jbims , narsee monjee institute of management studies nmims , s p jain institute of management and research, tata institute of social sciences tiss and several other management schools.

government law college and sydenham college, respectively the oldest law and commerce colleges in india, are based in mumbai.

the sir j. j.

school of art is mumbai's oldest art institution.

mumbai is home to two prominent research institutions the tata institute of fundamental research tifr , and the bhabha atomic research centre barc .

the barc operates cirus, a 40 mw nuclear research reactor at their facility in trombay.

sports cricket is more popular than any other sport in the city.

due to a shortage of grounds, various modified versions generally referred to as gully cricket are played everywhere.

mumbai is also home to the board of control for cricket in india bcci and indian premier league ipl .

the mumbai cricket team represents the city in the ranji trophy and has won 40 titles, the most by any team.

the city is also represented by the mumbai indians in the indian premier league.

the city has two international cricket grounds, the wankhede stadium and the brabourne stadium.

the first cricket test match in india was played in mumbai at the bombay gymkhana.

the biggest cricketing event to be staged in the city so far is the final of the 2011 icc cricket world cup which was played at the wankhede stadium.

mumbai and london are the only two cities to have hosted both a world cup final and the final of an icc champions trophy which was played at the brabourne stadium in 2006.

football is another popular sport in the city, with the fifa world cup and the english premier league being followed widely.

in the indian super league, mumbai city fc represents the city while in the i-league matches in the city are played at the cooperage ground , the city is represented by two teams mumbai fc and air-india.

when the elite football league of india was introduced in august 2011, mumbai was noted as one of eight cities to be awarded a team for the inaugural season.

named the mumbai gladiators, the team's first season was played in pune in late 2012, and it will be mumbai's first professional american football franchise.

in hockey, mumbai is home to the mumbai marines and mumbai magicians in the world series hockey and hockey india league respectively.

matches in the city are played at the mahindra hockey stadium.

rugby is another growing sport in mumbai with league matches being held at the bombay gymkhana from june to november.

every february, mumbai holds derby races at the mahalaxmi racecourse.

mcdowell's derby is also held in february at the turf club in mumbai.

in march 2004, the mumbai grand prix was part of the f1 powerboat world championship, and the force india f1 team car was unveiled in the city, in 2008.

the city is planning to build its own f1 track and various sites in the city were being chalked out, of which the authorities have planned to zero down on marve-malad or panvel-kalyan land.

if approved, the track will be clubbed with a theme park and will spread over an area of some 160 to 200 ha 400 to 500 acres .

in 2004, the annual mumbai marathon was established as a part of "the greatest race on earth".

mumbai had also played host to the kingfisher airlines tennis open, an international series tournament of the atp world tour, in 2006 and 2007.

see also list of tallest buildings in mumbai list of tourist attractions in mumbai list of twin towns and sister cities in india mumbai wikipedia book notes references external links chisholm, hugh, ed.

1911 .

"bombay city".

britannica 11th ed.

cambridge university press.

official website of the municipal corporation of greater mumbai official city report japji sahib is a sikh prayer, that appears at the beginning of the holy scripture of the sikhs, the living guru, guru granth sahib.

it was composed by guru nanak dev, the founder of sikhism.

it is headed by mool mantra and followed by 38 paudis stanzas and completed with a final salok at the end of this composition.

japji sahib is believed to be the first composition of guru nanak, and considered in sikhism as the faith's most comprehensive essence.

it is regarded amongst the most important bani or 'set of verses' by the sikhs, as it is the first bani in nitnem.

it is notable for its discourse on what is true worship and the nature of god.

it states that god is indescribable, the only true form of worship is acceptance of god, and to remain one with loving god, always.

related to japji sahib is the jaapu sahib punjabi , the latter is found at the start of dasam granth and was composed by shri guru gobind singh ji.

japji is used in the sikh tradition at the initiation ceremony and during the cremation ritual.

meaning of japu following are some accepted meanings of jap the popular meanings of japu is to recite, to repeat, or to chant.

jap also means to understand.

gurbani cites aisa giaan japo man mere, hovo chakar sache kere, where the word jap means to understand wisdom.

content the japji sahib opens hymn one cannot clean the mind just by cleaning the body, by silence alone one cannot find peace, by food alone one cannot satisfy one's hunger, to be purified one must abide in love of the divine.

hymn 2 asserts that by god's command the ups and downs in life happen, it is he who causes suffering and happiness, it is he whose command brings release from rebirth, and it is his command by which one lives in perpetual cycles of rebirth from karma.

with good karmas in past life and his grace is the gate of mukti liberation is found in him is everything, states hymn 4.

the hymn 5 states that he has endless virtues, so one must sing his name, listen, and keep the love for him in one's heart.

the guru's shabda word is the protecting sound and wisdom of the vedas, the guru is shiva, vishnu gorakh and brahma, and the guru is mother parvati and lakshmi.

all living beings abide in him.

hymns 6 to 15 describe the value of listening to the word and having faith, for it is the faith that liberates.

god is formless and indescribable, state hymns 16 to 19.

it is remembering his name that cleanses, liberates states hymn 20.

hymns 21 through 27 revere the nature and name of god, stating that man's life is like a river that does not know the vastness of ocean it journeys to join, that all literature from vedas to puranas speak of him, brahma speaks, siddhas speak, yogi speaks, shiva speaks, the silent sages speak, the buddha speaks, the krishna speaks, the humble sewadars speak, yet one cannot describe him completely with all the words in the world.

hymn 30 states that he watches all, but none can see him.

god is the primal one, the pure light, without beginning, without end, the never changing constant, states hymn 31.

japji sahib and jaap sahib the guru granth sahib starts with japji sahib, while dasam granth starts with jaap sahib.

guru nanak is credited with the former, while guru gobind singh is credited with the latter.

jaap sahib is structured as a stotra that are commonly found in 1st millennium ce hindu literature.

the jaap sahib, unlike japji sahib, is composed predominantly in braj-hindi and sanskrit language, with a few arabic words, and with 199 stanzas is longer than japji sahib.

the japu sahib is, like japji sahib, a praise of god as the unchanging, loving, unborn, ultimate power and includes within it 950 names of god, starting with brahma, shiva, vishnu and moving on to over 900 names and avatars of gods and goddesses found in hindu traditions, with the assertion that these are all manifestations of the one, the limitless eternal creator.

this is similar to sahasranama texts of india, and for this reason this part is also called as akal sahasranama.

the text includes arabic words for god such as khuda and allah.

the japu sahib includes a mention of god as wielder of weapons, consistent with the martial spirit of dasam granth.

references external links japji in english listen download audio of japji sahib listen download fast version of japji sahib contemporary translations of japji sahib japji sahib - bani in punjabi with english translation & transliteration india, officially the republic of india , is a country in south asia.

it is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people , and the most populous democracy in the world.

it is bounded by the indian ocean on the south, the arabian sea on the southwest, and the bay of bengal on the southeast.

it shares land borders with pakistan to the west china, nepal, and bhutan to the northeast and myanmar burma and bangladesh to the east.

in the indian ocean, india is in the vicinity of sri lanka and the maldives.

india's andaman and nicobar islands share a maritime border with thailand and indonesia.

the indian subcontinent was home to the urban indus valley civilisation of the 3rd millennium bce.

in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with hinduism began to be composed.

social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium bce, and buddhism and jainism arose.

early political consolidations took place under the maurya and gupta empires the later peninsular middle kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast asia.

in the medieval era, judaism, zoroastrianism, christianity, and islam arrived, and sikhism emerged, all adding to the region's diverse culture.

much of the north fell to the delhi sultanate the south was united under the vijayanagara empire.

the economy expanded in the 17th century in the mughal empire.

in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under british east india company rule, and in the mid-19th under british crown rule.

a nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under mahatma gandhi, was noted for non-violent resistance and led to india's independence in 1947.

in 2015, the indian economy was the world's seventh largest by nominal gdp and third largest by purchasing power parity.

following market-based economic reforms in 1991, india became one of the fastest-growing major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country.

however, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, and inadequate public healthcare.

a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations.

india is a federal constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system and consists of 29 states and 7 union territories.

it is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

etymology the name india is derived from indus, which originates from the old persian word hindu.

the latter term stems from the sanskrit word sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the indus river.

the ancient greeks referred to the indians as indoi , which translates as "the people of the indus".

the geographical term bharat , pronounced , which is recognised by the constitution of india as an official name for the country, is used by many indian languages in its variations.

it is a modernisation of the historical name bharatavarsha, which traditionally referred to the indian subcontinent and gained increasing currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for india.

scholars believe it to be named after the vedic tribe of bharatas in the second millennium b.c.e.

it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor bharata.

literally, people's state is the sanskrit hindi term for "republic" dating back to the ancient times.

hindustan is a persian name for india dating back to the 3rd century b.c.e.

it was introduced into india by the mughals and widely used since then.

its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern india and pakistan or india in its entirety.

currently, the name may refer to either the northern part of india or the entire country.

history ancient india the earliest authenticated human remains in south asia date to about 30,000 years ago.

nearly contemporaneous mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the indian subcontinent, including at the bhimbetka rock shelters in madhya pradesh.

around 7000 bce, the first known neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in mehrgarh and other sites in western pakistan.

these gradually developed into the indus valley civilisation, the first urban culture in south asia it flourished during bce in pakistan and western india.

centred around cities such as mohenjo-daro, harappa, dholavira, and kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.

during the period bce, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the chalcolithic to the iron age.

the vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with hinduism, were composed during this period, and historians have analysed these to posit a vedic culture in the punjab region and the upper gangetic plain.

most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of indo-aryan migration into the subcontinent.

the caste system arose during this period, creating a hierarchy of priests, warriors, free peasants and traders, and lastly the indigenous peoples who were regarded as impure and small tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical, state-level polities.

on the deccan plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.

in southern india, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period, as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.

in the late vedic period, around the 6th century bce, the small states and chiefdoms of the ganges plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.

the emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions.

jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, mahavira.

buddhism, based on the teachings of gautama buddha attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class chronicling the life of the buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in india.

in an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal, and both established long-lasting monastic traditions.

politically, by the 3rd century bce, the kingdom of magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the mauryan empire.

the empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.

the mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the buddhist dhamma.

the sangam literature of the tamil language reveals that, between 200 bce and 200 ce, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the cheras, the cholas, and the pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the roman empire and with west and south-east asia.

in north india, hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.

by the 4th and 5th centuries, the gupta empire had created in the greater ganges plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later indian kingdoms.

under the guptas, a renewed hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself.

the renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.

classical sanskrit literature flowered as well, and indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.

medieval india the indian early medieval age, 600 ce to 1200 ce, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.

when harsha of kannauj, who ruled much of the indo-gangetic plain from 606 to 647 ce, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the chalukya ruler of the deccan.

when his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the pala king of bengal.

when the chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the pandyas and the cholas from still farther south.

no ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region.

during this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.

the caste system consequently began to show regional differences.

in the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the tamil language.

they were imitated all over india and led to both the resurgence of hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.

indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised, drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.

temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as india underwent another urbanisation.

by the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in south-east asia, as south indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day myanmar, thailand, laos, cambodia, vietnam, philippines, malaysia, and java.

indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission south-east asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in indian seminaries and translating buddhist and hindu texts into their languages.

after the 10th century, muslim central asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran south asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the islamic delhi sultanate in 1206.

the sultanate was to control much of north india, and to make many forays into south india.

although at first disruptive for the indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.

by repeatedly repulsing mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved india from the devastation visited on west and central asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic indo-islamic culture in the north.

the sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of south india paved the way for the indigenous vijayanagara empire.

embracing a strong shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular india, and was to influence south indian society for long afterwards.

early modern india in the early 16th century, northern india, being then under mainly muslim rulers, fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of central asian warriors.

the resulting mughal empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.

eschewing tribal bonds and islamic identity, especially under akbar, the mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.

the mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency, caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.

the relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in india's economic expansion, resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.

newly coherent social groups in northern and western india, such as the marathas, the rajputs, and the sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.

expanding commerce during mughal rule gave rise to new indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern india.

as the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.

by the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of european trading companies, including the english east india company, had established coastal outposts.

the east india company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the indian elite both these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other european companies.

its further access to the riches of bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of india by the 1820s.

india was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the british empire with raw materials, and many historians consider this to be the onset of india's colonial period.

by this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the british parliament and itself effectively made an arm of british administration, the company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.

modern india historians consider india's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885.

the appointment in 1848 of lord dalhousie as governor general of the east india company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state.

these included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens english education act 1835 .

technological them, railways, canals, and the introduced not long after their introduction in europe.

however, disaffection with the company also grew during this time, and set off the indian rebellion of 1857.

fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive british-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central india and shook the foundations of company rule.

although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the east india company and to the direct administration of india by the british government.

proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited british-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.

in the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over india, leading eventually to the founding of the indian national congress in 1885.

the rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.

there was an increase in the number of large-scale famines, and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for indians.

there were also salutary effects commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.

the railway network provided critical famine relief, notably reduced the cost of moving goods, and helped nascent indian-owned industry.

after world war i, in which approximately one million indians served, a new period began.

it was marked by british reforms but also repressive legislations, by more strident indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which mohandas karamchand gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol.

during the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the british the indian national congress won victories in the resulting elections.

the next decade was beset with crises indian participation in world war ii, the congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of muslim nationalism.

all were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of india into two states india and pakistan.

vital to india's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.

in the 60 years since, india has had a mixed record of successes and failures.

it has remained a democracy with civil liberties, an active supreme court, and a largely independent press.

economic liberalisation, which was begun in the 1990s, has created a large urban middle class, transformed india into one of the world's fastest-growing economies, and increased its geopolitical clout.

indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.

yet, india is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban by religious and caste-related violence by maoist-inspired naxalite insurgencies and by separatism in jammu and kashmir and in northeast india.

it has unresolved territorial disputes with china and with pakistan.

the nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998.

india's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.

geography india comprises the bulk of the indian subcontinent, lying atop the indian tectonic plate, and part of the indo-australian plate.

india's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the indian plate, then part of the southern supercontinent gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.

simultaneously, the vast tethyn oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the eurasian plate.

these dual processes, driven by convection in the earth's mantle, both created the indian ocean and caused the indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust eurasia and to uplift the himalayas.

immediately south of the emerging himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment and now constitutes the indo-gangetic plain.

cut off from the plain by the ancient aravalli range lies the thar desert.

the original indian plate survives as peninsular india, the oldest and geologically most stable part of india.

it extends as far north as the satpura and vindhya ranges in central india.

these parallel chains run from the arabian sea coast in gujarat in the west to the coal-rich chota nagpur plateau in jharkhand in the east.

to the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the deccan plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the western and eastern ghats the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old.

constituted in such fashion, india lies to the north of the equator between 44' and 30' north latitude and 7' and 25' east longitude.

india's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres 4,700 mi in length of this distance, 5,423 kilometres 3,400 mi belong to peninsular india and 2,094 kilometres 1,300 mi to the andaman, nicobar, and lakshadweep island chains.

according to the indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following 43% sandy beaches 11% rocky shores, including cliffs and 46% mudflats or marshy shores.

major himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through india include the ganges and the brahmaputra, both of which drain into the bay of bengal.

important tributaries of the ganges include the yamuna and the kosi the latter's extremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes.

major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the godavari, the mahanadi, the kaveri, and the krishna, which also drain into the bay of bengal and the narmada and the tapti, which drain into the arabian sea.

coastal features include the marshy rann of kutch of western india and the alluvial sundarbans delta of eastern india the latter is shared with bangladesh.

india has two archipelagos the lakshadweep, coral atolls off india's south-western coast and the andaman and nicobar islands, a volcanic chain in the andaman sea.

the indian climate is strongly influenced by the himalayas and the thar desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons.

the himalayas prevent cold central asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.

the thar desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between june and october, provide the majority of india's rainfall.

four major climatic groupings predominate in india tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.

biodiversity india lies within the indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspots.

one of 17 megadiverse countries, it hosts 8.6% of all mammalian, 13.7% of all avian, 7.9% of all reptilian, 6% of all amphibian, 12.2% of all piscine, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.

about 21.2% of the country's landmass is covered by forests tree canopy density 10% , of which 12.2% comprises moderately or very dense forests tree canopy density 40% .

endemism is high among plants, 33%, and among ecoregions such as the shola forests.

habitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the andaman islands, western ghats, and north-east india to the coniferous forest of the himalaya.

between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern india the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern india and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central deccan and western gangetic plain.

the medicinal neem, widely used in rural indian herbal remedies, is a key indian tree.

the luxuriant pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of mohenjo-daro, shaded gautama buddha as he sought enlightenment.

many indian species descend from taxa originating in gondwana, from which the indian plate separated more than 105 million years before present.

peninsular india's subsequent movement towards and collision with the laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species.

epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago forced a mass extinction.

mammals then entered india from asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising himalaya.

thus, while 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians are endemic, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are.

among them are the nilgiri leaf monkey and beddome's toad of the western ghats.

india contains 172 iucn-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.

these include the asiatic lion, the bengal tiger, the snow leopard and the indian white-rumped vulture, which, by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-laced cattle, nearly became extinct.

the pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered indian wildlife.

in response the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded.

in 1972, india enacted the wildlife protection act and project tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness the forest conservation act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.

india hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen biosphere reserves, four of which are part of the world network of biosphere reserves twenty-five wetlands are registered under the ramsar convention.

politics india is the world's most populous democracy.

a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system, it has six recognised national parties, including the indian national congress and the bharatiya janata party bjp , and more than 40 regional parties.

the congress is considered centre-left in indian political culture, and the bjp right-wing.

for most of the period between india first became a the late 1980s, the congress held a majority in the parliament.

since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the bjp, as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the centre.

in the republic of india's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the jawaharlal nehru-led congress won easy victories.

on nehru's death in 1964, lal bahadur shastri briefly became prime minister he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by indira gandhi, who went on to lead the congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971.

following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the congress was voted out of power in 1977 the then-new janata party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in.

its government lasted just over three years.

voted back into power in 1980, the congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when indira gandhi was assassinated she was succeeded by her son rajiv gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year.

the congress was voted out again in 1989 when a national front coalition, led by the newly formed janata dal in alliance with the left front, won the elections that government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just under two years.

elections were held again in 1991 no party won an absolute majority.

the congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government led by p. v. narasimha rao.

a two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996.

several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre.

the bjp formed a government briefly in 1996 it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting united front coalitions, which depended on external support.

in 1998, the bjp was able to form a successful coalition, the national democratic alliance nda .

led by atal bihari vajpayee, the nda became the first non-congress, coalition government to complete a five-year term.

in the 2004 indian general elections, again no party won an absolute majority, but the congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition the united progressive alliance upa .

it had the support of left-leaning parties and mps who opposed the bjp.

the upa returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from india's communist parties.

that year, manmohan singh became the first prime minister since jawaharlal nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.

in the 2014 general election, the bjp became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties.

the prime minister of india is narendra modi, who was formerly chief minister of gujarat.

government india is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the constitution of india, which serves as the country's supreme legal document.

it is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law".

federalism in india defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states.

the government abides by constitutional checks and balances.

the constitution of india, which came into effect on 26 january 1950, states in its preamble that india is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.

india's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states, has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.

the federal government comprises three branches executive the president of india is the head of state and is elected indirectly by a national electoral college for a five-year term.

the prime minister of india is the head of government and exercises most executive power.

appointed by the president, the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.

the executive branch of the indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the council of cabinet being its executive by the prime minister.

any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.

in the indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature the prime minister and his council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.

legislative the legislature of india is the bicameral parliament.

it operates under a westminster-style parliamentary system and comprises the upper house called the rajya sabha "council of states" and the lower called the lok sabha "house of the people" .

the rajya sabha is a permanent body that has 245 members who serve in staggered six-year terms.

most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population.

all but two of the lok sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote they represent individual constituencies via five-year terms.

the remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the anglo-indian community, in case the president decides that they are not adequately represented.

judicial india has a unitary three-tier independent judiciary that comprises the supreme court, headed by the chief justice of india, 24 high courts, and a large number of trial courts.

the supreme court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre it has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.

it has the power both to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution, as well as to invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional.

subdivisions india is a federation composed of 29 states and 7 union territories.

all states, as well as the union territories of puducherry and the national capital territory of delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the westminster model.

the remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators.

in 1956, under the states reorganisation act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.

since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged.

each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts.

the districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages.

foreign relations and military since its independence in 1947, india has maintained cordial relations with most nations.

in the 1950s, it strongly supported decolonisation in africa and asia and played a lead role in the non-aligned movement.

in the late 1980s, the indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countries a peace-keeping operation in sri lanka between 1987 and 1990 and an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d' attempt in maldives.

india has tense relations with neighbouring pakistan the two nations have gone to war four times in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999.

three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of kashmir, while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from india's support for the independence of bangladesh.

after waging the 1962 sino-indian war and the 1965 war with pakistan, india pursued close military and economic ties with the soviet union by the late 1960s, the soviet union was its largest arms supplier.

aside from ongoing strategic relations with russia, india has wide-ranging defence relations with israel and france.

in recent years, it has played key roles in the south asian association for regional cooperation and the world trade organisation.

the nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 un peacekeeping operations across four continents.

it participates in the east asia summit, the g8 5, and other multilateral forums.

india has close economic ties with south america, asia, and africa it pursues a "look east" policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the asean nations, japan, and south korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security.

china's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced india to develop nuclear weapons.

india conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998.

despite criticism and military sanctions, india has signed neither the comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty nor the nuclear non-proliferation treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.

india maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.

it is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with russia, a fifth-generation fighter jet.

other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of vikrant-class aircraft carriers and arihant-class nuclear submarines.

since the end of the cold war, india has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with the united states and the european union.

in 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between india and the united states.

although india possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the nuclear non-proliferation treaty, it received waivers from the international atomic energy agency and the nuclear suppliers group, ending earlier restrictions on india's nuclear technology and commerce.

as a consequence, india became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.

india subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with russia, france, the united kingdom, and canada.

the president of india is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces with 1.325 million active troops, they compose the world's third-largest military.

it comprises the indian army, the indian navy, and the indian air force auxiliary organisations include the strategic forces command and three paramilitary groups the assam rifles, the special frontier force, and the indian coast guard.

the official indian defence budget for 2011 was us 36.03 billion, or 1.83% of gdp.

for the fiscal year spanning , us 40.44 billion was budgeted.

according to a 2008 sipri report, india's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at us 72.7 billion.

in 2011, the annual defence budget increased by 11.6%, although this does not include funds that reach the military through other branches of government.

as of 2012, india is the world's largest arms importer between 2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds spent on international arms purchases.

much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against pakistan and countering growing chinese influence in the indian ocean.

economy according to the international monetary fund imf , the indian economy in 2015 was nominally worth us 2.183 trillion it is the 7th-largest economy by market exchange rates, and is, at us 8.027 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity, or ppp.

with its average annual gdp growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during , india is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.

however, the country ranks 140th in the world in nominal gdp per capita and 129th in gdp per capita at ppp.

until 1991, all indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics.

widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world.

an acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy since then it has slowly moved towards a free-market system by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.

india's recent economic model is largely capitalist.

india has been a member of wto since 1 january 1995.

the 486.6-million worker indian labour force is the world's second-largest, as of 2011.

the service sector makes up 55.6% of gdp, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%.

india's foreign exchange remittances were us 70 billion in year 2014, the largest in the world, contributed to its economy by 25 million indians working in foreign countries.

major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.

major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, and software.

in 2006, the share of external trade in india's gdp stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.

in 2008, india's share of world trade was 1.68% in 2011, india was the world's tenth-largest importer and the nineteenth-largest exporter.

major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures.

major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.

between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.

india was the second largest textile exporter after china in the world in calendar year 2013.

averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007, india has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.

some 431 million indians have left poverty since 1985 india's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.

though ranking 51st in global competitiveness, india ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies, as of 2010.

with 7 of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in india, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the united states, as of 2009.

india's consumer market, the world's eleventh-largest, is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030.

driven by growth, india's nominal gdp per capita has steadily increased from us 329 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to us 1,265 in 2010, and is estimated to increase to us 2,110 by 2016 however, it has remained lower than those of other asian developing countries such as indonesia, malaysia, philippines, sri lanka, and thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future.

however, it is higher than pakistan, nepal, afghanistan, bangladesh and others.

according to a 2011 pricewaterhousecoopers report, india's gdp at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the united states by 2045.

during the next four decades, indian gdp is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major economy until 2050.

the report highlights key growth factors a young and rapidly growing working-age population growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle class.

the world bank cautions that, for india to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.

in 2016, the economist intelligence unit eiu released a list of the top 10 cheapest cities in the world, based on the cost of 160 products and services, of which four were in india bangalore 2nd , mumbai 3rd , chennai 6th and new delhi 8th .

sectors india's telecommunication industry, the world's fastest-growing, added 227 million subscribers during the period , and after the first quarter of 2013, india surpassed japan to become the third largest smartphone market in the world after china and the us.

the indian automotive industry, the world's second fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during , and exports by 36% during .

india's capacity to generate electrical power is 250 gigawatts, of which 8% is renewable.

at the end of 2011, the indian it industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to us 100 billion equalling 7.5% of indian gdp and contributed 26% of india's merchandise exports.

the pharmaceutical industry in india is among the significant emerging markets for global pharma industry.

the indian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach 48.5 billion by 2020.

india's r & d spending constitutes 60% of the biopharmaceutical industry.

india is among the top 12 biotech destinations of the world.

the indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in , increasing its revenues from 204.4 billion inr indian rupees to 235.24 billion inr 3.94 b us exchange rate june 2013 1 us approx.

60 inr .

although hardly 2% of indians pay income taxes.

poverty despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, india continues to face socio-economic challenges.

in 2006, india contained the largest number of people living below the world bank's international poverty line of us 1.25 per day, the proportion having decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005 under its later revised poverty line, it was 21% in 2011.

30.7% of india's children under the age of five are underweight.

according to a food and agriculture organization report in 2015, 15% of the population is undernourished.

the mid-day meal scheme attempts to lower these rates.

since 1991, economic inequality between india's states has consistently grown the per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.

corruption in india is perceived to have increased significantly, with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be us 462 billion.

india has the highest number of people living in conditions of slavery, 18 million, most of whom are in bonded labour.

india has the largest number of child labourers under the age of 14 in the world with an estimated 12.6 million children engaged in hazardous occupations.

demographics with 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report, india is the world's second-most populous country.

its population grew by 17.64% during , compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade .

the human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.

the median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census.

the first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361.1 million people.

medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "green revolution" have caused india's population to grow rapidly.

india continues to face several public health-related challenges.

life expectancy in india is at 68 years with life expectancy for women being 69.6 years and for men being 67.3.

there are around 50 physicians per 100,000 indians.

the number of indians living in urban areas has grown by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.

yet, in 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas.

the level of urbanisation increased from 27.81% in 2001 census to 31.16% in 2011 census.

the slowing down of the overall growth rate of population was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.

according to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in india among them mumbai, delhi, kolkata, chennai, bangalore, hyderabad and ahmedabad, in decreasing order by population.

the literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04% 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.

the rural urban literacy gap which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011.

the improvement in literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban areas.

kerala is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy while bihar the least with 63.82%.

india is home to two major language families indo-aryan spoken by about 74% of the population and dravidian 24% .

other languages spoken in india come from the austroasiatic and sino-tibetan language families.

india has no national language.

hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.

english is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language" it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education.

each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 "scheduled languages".

the constitution of india recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population.

the 2011 census reported that the religion in india with the largest number of followers was hinduism 79.8% of the population , followed by islam 14.23% the remaining were christianity 2.30% , sikhism 1.72% , buddhism 0.70% and jainism 0.36% .

india has the world's largest hindu, sikh, jain, zoroastrian, and ' populations, and has the third-largest muslim largest for a non-muslim majority country.

culture indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.

during the vedic period c. 1700 500 bce , the foundations of hindu philosophy, mythology, theology and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as , , , and , were established.

india is notable for its religious diversity, with hinduism, buddhism, sikhism, islam, christianity, and jainism among the nation's major religions.

the predominant religion, hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the upanishads, the yoga sutras, the bhakti movement, and by buddhist philosophy.

art and architecture much of indian architecture, including the taj mahal, other works of mughal architecture, and south indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.

vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavours.

vastu shastra, literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and ascribed to mamuni mayan, explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.

as applied in hindu temple architecture, it is influenced by the shilpa shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the vastu-purusha mandala, a square that embodied the "absolute".

the taj mahal, built in agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of emperor shah jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the unesco world heritage list as "the jewel of muslim art in india and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".

indo-saracenic revival architecture, developed by the british in the late 19th century, drew on indo-islamic architecture.

literature the earliest literary writings in india, composed between 1700 bce and 1200 ce, were in the sanskrit language.

prominent works of this sanskrit literature include epics such as the and the ramayana, the dramas of such as the the recognition of , and poetry such as the .

kamasutra, the famous book about sexual intercourse also originated in india.

developed between 600 bce and 300 ce in south india, the sangam literature, consisting of 2,381 poems, is regarded as a predecessor of tamil literature.

from the 14th to the 18th centuries, india's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as , , and guru .

this period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression as a consequence, medieval indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.

in the 19th century, indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions.

in the 20th century, indian literature was influenced by the works of bengali poet and novelist rabindranath tagore, who was a recipient of the nobel prize in literature.

performing arts indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles.

classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots the northern hindustani and southern carnatic schools.

regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter.

indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms.

among the better-known folk dances are the bhangra of punjab, the bihu of assam, the chhau of odisha, west bengal and jharkhand, garba and dandiya of gujarat, ghoomar of rajasthan, and the lavani of maharashtra.

eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by india's national academy of music, dance, and drama.

these are bharatanatyam of the state of tamil nadu, kathak of uttar pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of kerala, kuchipudi of andhra pradesh, manipuri of manipur, odissi of odisha, and the sattriya of assam.

theatre in india melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.

often based on hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, indian theatre includes the bhavai of gujarat, the jatra of west bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of north india, tamasha of maharashtra, burrakatha of andhra pradesh, terukkuttu of tamil nadu, and the yakshagana of karnataka.

motion pictures, television the indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.

established regional cinematic traditions exist in the assamese, bengali, bhojpuri, hindi, kannada, malayalam, punjabi, gujarati, marathi, odia, tamil, and telugu languages.

south indian cinema attracts more than 75% of national film revenue.

television broadcasting began in india in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication, and had slow expansion for more than two decades.

the state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s and, since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped popular culture of indian society.

today, television is the most penetrative media in india industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there are over 554 million tv consumers, 462 million with satellite and or cable connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as press 350 million , radio 156 million or internet 37 million .

cuisine indian cuisine encompasses a wide variety of regional and traditional cuisines, often depending on a particular state such as maharashtrian cuisine .

staple foods of indian cuisine include pearl millet , rice, whole-wheat flour , and a variety of lentils, such as masoor most often red lentils , toor pigeon peas , urad black gram , and mong mung beans .

lentils may be used whole, example, dhuli moong or dhuli split.

split lentils, or dal, are used extensively.

the spice trade between india and europe is often cited by historians as the primary catalyst for europe's age of discovery.

society traditional indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy.

the indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the indian subcontinent.

social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as , or "castes".

india declared untouchability to be illegal in 1947 and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.

at the workplace in urban india and in international or leading indian companies, the caste related identification has pretty much lost its importance.

family values are important in the indian tradition, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in india, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.

an overwhelming majority of indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other elders in the family.

marriage is thought to be for life, and the divorce rate is extremely low.

as of 2001, just 1.6 percent of indian women were divorced but this figure was rising due to their education and economic independence.

child marriages are common, especially in rural areas many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.

female infanticide and female foeticide in the country have caused a discrepancy in the sex ratio, as of 2005 it was estimated that there were 50 million more males than females in the nation.

however a report from 2011 has shown improvement in the gender ratio.

the payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class lines.

deaths resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on the rise.

many indian festivals are religious in origin.

the best known include diwali, ganesh chaturthi, thai pongal, holi, durga puja, eid ul-fitr, bakr-id, christmas, and vaisakhi.

india has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories republic day, independence day and gandhi jayanti.

other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states.

clothing cotton was domesticated in india by 4000 bce.

traditional indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors, including climate and faith.

popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men.

stitched clothes, such as the shalwar kameez for women and combinations or european-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.

use of delicate jewellery, modelled on real flowers worn in ancient india, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 years gemstones are also worn in india as talismans.

sports in india, several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, such as kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda.

some of the earliest forms of asian martial arts, such as kalarippayattu, musti yuddha, silambam, and marma adi, originated in india.

chess, commonly held to have originated in india as , is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of indian grandmasters.

pachisi, from which parcheesi derives, was played on a giant marble court by akbar.

the improved results garnered by the indian davis cup team and other indian tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.

india has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the olympics, the world shooting championships, and the commonwealth games.

other sports in which indians have succeeded internationally include badminton saina nehwal and p v sindhu are two of the top ranked female badminton players in the world , boxing, and wrestling.

football is popular in west bengal, goa, tamil nadu, kerala, and the north-eastern states.

india is scheduled to host the 2017 fifa u-17 world cup.

field hockey in india is administered by hockey india.

the indian national hockey team won the 1975 hockey world cup and have, as of 2016, taken eight gold, one silver, and two bronze olympic medals, making it the sport's most successful team in the olympics.

india has also played a major role in popularising cricket.

thus, cricket is, by far, the most popular sport in india.

the indian national cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 cricket world cup events, the 2007 icc world twenty20, shared the 2002 icc champions trophy with sri lanka, and won 2013 icc champions trophy.

cricket in india is administered by the board of control for cricket in india bcci the ranji trophy, the duleep trophy, the deodhar trophy, the irani trophy, and the nkp salve challenger trophy are domestic competitions.

the bcci also conducts an annual twenty20 competition known as the indian premier league.

india has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events the 1951 and 1982 asian games the 1987, 1996, and 2011 cricket world cup tournaments the 2003 afro-asian games the 2006 icc champions trophy the 2010 hockey world cup and the 2010 commonwealth games.

major international sporting events held annually in india include the chennai open, the mumbai marathon, the delhi half marathon, and the indian masters.

the first formula 1 indian grand prix featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the f1 season calendar since 2014.

india has traditionally been the dominant country at the south asian games.

an example of this dominance is the basketball competition where team india won three out of four tournaments to date.

the rajiv gandhi khel ratna and the arjuna award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievement the dronacharya award is awarded for excellence in coaching.

see also outline of india index of india-related articles notes references bibliography overview etymology history geography biodiversity politics foreign relations and military economy demographics culture external links government official website of government of india government of india web directory general information "india".

the world factbook.

central intelligence agency.

india at dmoz india from ucb libraries govpubs india from the bbc news wikimedia atlas of india geographic data related to india at openstreetmap key development forecasts for india from international futures punjabi shahmukhi gurmukhi € is an indo-aryan language spoken by over 100 million native speakers worldwide, making it the 10th most widely spoken language 2015 in the world.

it is the native language of the punjabi people who inhabit the historical punjab region of pakistan and india.

among the indo-european languages it is unusual in being a tonal language.

punjabi is the most widely spoken language in pakistan, the 11th most widely spoken in india and the third-most spoken native language in the indian subcontinent.

punjabi is the fourth-most spoken language in the united kingdom and third-most spoken native language after english and french in canada.

the language also has a significant presence in the united arab emirates, united states, saudi arabia, and australia.

the punjabi language is written in the shahmukhi and gurumukhi scripts, making it one of the relatively few languages written in more than one script.

history etymology the word punjabi is derived from the word panj- , persian for "five waters", referring to the five major eastern tributaries of the indus river.

panj is cognate with sanskrit and greek "five", and " " is cognate with the av- of avon.

the historical punjab region, now divided between india and pakistan, is defined physiographically by the indus river and these five tributaries.

one of the five, the beas river, is a tributary of another, the sutlej.

origin of the punjabi language punjabi developed from sanskrit through prakrit language and later sanskrit corruption or corrupted speech from 600 bc sanskrit gave birth to many regional languages in diffrerent parts of india.

these all languages are called prakrit language collectively.

shauraseni prakrit was one of these prakrit languages, which was spoken in north and north-western india and punjabi and western dialects of hindi developed from this prakrit.

later in northern india shauraseni prakrit gave rise to shauraseni aparbhsha, which was a degenerated form of prakrit.

punjabi emerged as an apabhramsha, a degenerated form of prakrit, in the 7th century a.d. and became stable by the 10th century.

by the 10th century, many nath poets were associated with earlier punjabi works.

arabic and persian influence on punjabi arabic and persian influence in the historical punjab region began with the late first millennium muslim conquests on the indian subcontinent.

the persian language was introduced in the subcontinent a few centuries later by various persianized central asian turkic and afghan dynasties including that of mahmud of ghazni.

many persian and arabic words were incorporated in punjabi.

punjabi has more persian and arabic vocabulary than bengali, marathi, and gujarati due to the proximity of the punjab with western asia.

it is noteworthy that the hindustani language divided into hindi, with more sanskritisation, and urdu, with more persianisation, but in punjabi both sanskrit and persian words are used with a liberal approach to language.

later, it was influenced by portuguese and english, though these influences have been minor in comparison to persian and arabic.

however, in india english words in the official language are more widespread than hindi.

geographic distribution punjabi is the most widely spoken language in pakistan, the seventh-most widely spoken in india and spoken punjabi diaspora in various countries.

pakistan punjabi is the most widely spoken language in pakistan.

punjabi is the provincial language in the punjab province of pakistan.

punjabi is spoken as a native language by over 44.15% of pakistanis.

about 70.0% of the people of pakistan speak punjabi as either their first or second language, and for some as their third language.

lahore, the capital of the punjab province of pakistan, is the largest punjabi-speaking city in the world.

86% of the total population of lahore is native punjabi and islamabad, the capital of pakistan, is 72% native punjabis at 3rd after faisalabad where 98.2% are native.

there are also large number of punjabi speakers in karachi.

in the 1981 national census of pakistan the saraiki, pothohari and hindko dialects of the western punjabi were accorded the status of separate languages, which explains the decrease of the percentage of punjabi speakers.

india punjabi is spoken as a native language, second language, or third language by about 30 million people in india.

punjabi is the official language of the indian states of punjab, haryana and delhi.

some of its major urban centres in northern india are ambala, ludhiana, amritsar, chandigarh, jalandhar, and delhi.

punjabi diaspora punjabi is also spoken as a minority language in several other countries where punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers, such as the united states, australia, the united kingdom, and canada, where it is the fourth-most-commonly used language, .

there were 76 million punjabi speakers in pakistan in 2008, 33 million in india in 2011, 1.3 million in the uk in 2000, 368,000 in canada in 2006, and smaller numbers in other countries.

official status punjabi has had a rich literary history and a wide geographical for back centuries, but before 1947 it had never been official language.

previous governments in the area of the punjab had favoured persian, hindustani, or even earlier standardised versions of local registers as the language of the court or government.

after the annexation of the sikh empire by the british east india company following the second anglo-sikh war in 1849, the british policy of establishing a uniform language for administration was expanded into the punjab.

the british empire employed hindi and urdu in its administration of north-central and north-west india, while in the north-east of india, bengali was used as the language of administration.

despite its lack of official sanction, the punjabi language continued to flourish as an instrument of cultural production, with rich literary traditions continuing until modern times.

the sikh religion, with its gurmukhi script, played a special role in standardising and providing education in the language via gudwaras, while writers of all religions continued to produce poetry, prose, and literature in the language.

in india, punjabi is one of the 22 scheduled languages of india.

it is the first official language of the indian state of punjab.

punjabi has also second official status in delhi along with urdu, haryana.

in pakistan, no regional ethnic language has been granted official status at the national level, and as such punjabi is not an official language at the national level, even though it is the most spoken language in pakistan after urdu.

it is, however, the official provincial language of punjab, pakistan, the second largest and the most populous province of pakistan as well as in islamabad capital territory.

the only two official national languages in pakistan are urdu and english, which are considered the lingua francas of pakistan.

modern punjabi standard punjabi however punjabi is spoken in many dialects in an area from islamabad to delhi.

the majhi dialect has been adopted as standard punjabi in pakistan and india for education, media etc.

the majhi in shahmukhi in gurumukhi € dialect originated in the majha region of the punjab.

the majha region consists central districts of pakistani punjab and in india around amritsar and gurdaspur regions, known.

the two most important cities in this area are lahore and amritsar.

in india technical words in standard punjabi are loaned from sanskrit similarly to other major indian languages, but it generously uses arabic, persian, and english words also in the official language.

in this sense, punjabi is different from hindi, bangla and gujrati languages, where emphasis is given only to words from the sanskrit language.

in india, punjabi is written in the script in offices, schools, and media.

gurumukhi is considered the standard script for punjabi, though it is often unofficially written in the devanagari or latin scripts due to influence from hindi and english, india's two primary official languages at the union-level.

in pakistan, punjabi is generally written using the script, created from a modification of the persian script.

in pakistan, punjabi loans technical words from persian and arabic languages, just like urdu does.

punjabi in modern culture punjabi is becoming more acceptable among punjabis in modern media and communications.

punjabi has always been an integral part of indian cinema.

a large number of hindi movies now incorporate punjabi vocabulary in music and dialogue.

punjabi pop and folk songs are very popular both in india and pakistan at the national level.

the number of students opting for punjabi literature has increased in pakistani punjab.

punjabi cinema in india has also seen a revival and more and more punjabi movies are being produced.

in india, the number of students opting for punjabi literature as an optional subject in ias examinations has increased along with the success rate of the students.

punjabi music is very popular today throughout the world.

dialects and related languages punjabi has variously been assigned to either the northwestern group of indo-aryan together with lahnda and sindhi or to the central group together with hindi .

the major dialects of punjabi include majhi, doabi, malwai, powadhi, pothohari, and multani.

others are shahpuri or sargodha dialect, dhani, jhangochi changvi, jangli rachnavi, hindko, jandali, jafri khetrani, chenavari etc.

standard dialect the majhi € dialect spoken around amritsar and lahore is punjabi's prestige dialect.

majhi is spoken in the heart of punjab in the region of majha, which spans lahore, amritsar, gurdaspur, kasur, tarn taran, faisalabad, nankana sahib, pathankot, okara, pakpattan, sahiwal, narowal, sheikhupura, sialkot, chiniot, gujranwala and gujrat districts.

majhi retains the nasal consonants and , which have been superseded elsewhere by non-nasals and respectively.

the majhi and lahnda spoken in pakistan is more persianized in vocabulary, and the usage of the sounds , and is more common.

in the following table, it should be noted that tabbar in both dialects is informal in india, punjabi is written in , a standardised script.

the word gurmukhi translates into 'from the guru's mouth'.

in pakistan, the script, meaning "from the king's mouth", based on the persian abjad is used.

phonology the long vowels the vowels with also have nasal analogues.

tone punjabi has three phonemically distinct tones that developed from the lost murmured or "voiced aspirate" series of consonants.

phonetically the tones are rising or rising-falling contours and they can span over one syllable or two, but phonemically they can be distinguished as high, mid, and low.

a historical murmured consonant voiced aspirate consonant in word initial position became tenuis and left a low tone on the two syllables following it "horse".

a stem-final murmured consonant became modally voiced and left a high tone on the two syllables preceding it "october".

a stem-medial murmured consonant which appeared after a short vowel and before a long vowel became modally voiced and left a low tone on the two syllables following it "to have something lit".

other syllables have mid tone.

grammar the grammar of the punjabi language concerns the word order, case marking, verb conjugation, and other morphological and syntactic structures of the punjabi language.

the main article discusses the grammar of modern standard punjabi as defined by the sources cited therein.

writing systems punjabi has two major writing systems in use gurmukhi, which is a brahmic script derived from the script, and shahmukhi, which is an arabic script.

the word gurmukhi translates into "guru's mouth", and shahmukhi means "from the king's mouth".

in the punjab province of pakistan, the script used is shahmukhi and differs from the urdu alphabet in having four additional letters.

in the indian states of punjab, haryana and delhi and other parts of india, the script is generally used for writing punjabi.

historically, various local brahmic scripts including were also in use.

sample text this sample text was taken from the punjabi wikipedia article on lahore.

gurmukhi shahmukhi transliteration lahaur i. lok de lahaur i. lahor , te i te is dil i. lahaur de te i. te lok ikk de i.

translation lahore is the capital city of the pakistani punjab.

after a number of people from karachi, lahore is the second largest city.

lahore is pakistan's political stronghold and education capital and so it is also the heart of pakistan.

lahore lies on the bank of the ravi river.

and, its population is close to ten million people.

ipa literature development main article punjabi literature medieval era, mughal and sikh period the earliest punjabi literature is found in the fragments of writings of the 11th nath yogis € gorakshanath and charpatnah which is primarily spiritual and mystical in tone.fariduddin ganjshakar of pak pattan is generally recognised as the first major poet of the punjabi language.

roughly from the 11th century to 19th century, many great sufi saints and poets preached in the punjabi language.

bulle shah is considered one of the greatest sufi poets.

punjabi sufi poetry developed under shah hussain , sultan bahu , shah sharaf , ali haider , saleh muhammad safoori son of hazrat mai safoora qadiriyya, whom ali haider had given great tribute and bulleh shah .

the sikh religion originated in the 15th century in the punjab region and punjabi is the predominant language spoken by sikhs.

most portions of the guru granth sahib use the punjabi language written in gurmukhi, though punjabi is not the only language used in sikh scriptures.

the janamsakhis €, , stories on the life and legend of guru nanak , are early examples of punjabi prose literature.

the punjabi language is famous for its rich literature of qisse , ’ , most of the which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man's revolt against a larger system.

the qissa of heer ranjha by waris shah is among the most popular of punjabi qissas.

other popular stories include sohni mahiwal by fazal shah, mirza sahiban by hafiz barkhudar , sassui punnhun by hashim shah c. .

1843 , and qissa puran bhagat by qadaryar .

heroic ballads known as vaar enjoy a rich oral tradition in punjabi.

famous vaars arechandi di var , nadir shah di vaar by najabat,jangnama of shah mohammad .

british raj era and post-independence period the victorian novel, elizabethan drama, free verse and modernism entered punjabi literature through the introduction of british education during the raj.

nanak singh , vir singh, ishwar nanda, amrita pritam , puran singh , dhani ram chatrik , diwan singh and ustad daman , mohan singh and shareef kunjahi are some legendary punjabi writers of this period.

after independence of pakistan and india najm hossein syed, fakhar zaman and afzal ahsan randhawa, shafqat tanvir mirza, ahmad salim, and najm hosain syed, munir niazi, pir hadi abdul mannan enriched punjabi literature in pakistan, whereas amrita pritam , jaswant singh rahi , shiv kumar batalvi , surjit patar and pash are some of the more prominent poets and writers from india.

punjabi language in pakistan when pakistan was created in 1947, english and urdu were chosen as the national language of pakistan, the latter due to its association with south asian muslim nationalism and because the leaders of the new nation wanted a unifying national language instead of promoting one ethnic group's language over another.

article 251 of the constitution of pakistan declares that that these two languages would be the only official languages at the national level, while provincial governments would be allowed to make provisions for the use of other languages.

eventually, punjabi was granted status as a provincial language in punjab province, while the sindhi language was given official status in 1972 after 1972 language violence in sindh.

despite gaining official recognition at the provincial level, punjabi is not a language of instruction for primary or secondary school students in punjab province unlike sindhi and pashto in other provinces .

pupils in secondary schools can choose the language as an elective, while punjabi instruction or study remains rare in higher education.

one notable example is the teaching of punjabi language and literature by the university of the punjab in lahore which began in 1970 with the establishment of its punjabi department.

in the cultural sphere, there are many books, plays, and songs being written or produced in the punjabi-language in pakistan.

until the 1970s, there were a large number of punjabi-language films being produced by the lollywood film industry, however since then urdu has become a much more dominant language in film production.

additionally, television channels in punjab province centred on the lahore area are broadcast in urdu.

the preeminence of urdu in both broadcasting and the lollywood film industry is seen by critics as being detrimental to the health of the language.

language demands in punjab province the use of urdu and english as the near exclusive languages of broadcasting, the public sector, and formal education have led some to fear that punjabi in pakistan is being relegated to a low-status language and that it is being denied an environment where it can flourish.

several prominent educational leaders, researchers, and social commentators have echoed the opinion that the intentional promotion of urdu and the continued denial of any official sanction or recognition of the punjabi language amounts to a process of "urdu-isation" that is detrimental to the health of the punjabi language in august 2015, the pakistan academy of letters, international council iwc and world punjabi congress wpc organised the khawaja farid conference and demanded that a punjabi-language university should be established in lahore and that punjabi language should be declared as the medium of instruction at the primary level.

in september 2015, a case was filed in supreme court of pakistan against government of punjab, pakistan as it did not take any step to implement the punjabi language in the province.

additionally, several thousand punjabis gather in lahore every year on international mother language day.

hafiz saeed, chief of jama'at-ud-da'wah jud has questioned pakistan's decision to adopt urdu as its national language in a country where majority of people speak punjabi language, citing his interpretation of islamic doctrine as encouraging education in the mother-tongue.

the list of thinktanks, political organisations, cultural projects, and individuals that demand authorities at the national and provincial level to promote the use of the language in the public and official spheres includes cultural and research institutes punjabi adabi board, the khoj garh research centre, punjabi prachar, institute for peace and secular studies, adbi sangat, khaaksaar tehreek, saanjh, maan boli research centre, punjabi sangat pakistan, punjabi markaz, sver international trade unions and youth groups punjabi writers forum, national students federation, punjabi union-pakistan, punjabi national conference, national youth forum, punjabi writers forum, national students federation, punjabi union, pakistan, and the punjabi national conference.

notable activists include tariq jatala, farhad iqbal, diep saeeda, khalil ojla, afzal sahir, jamil ahmad paul, mazhar tirmazi, mushtaq sufi, biya je, tohid ahmad chattha and bilal shaker kahaloon, nazeer kahut there are also several political organisations that openly endorse the promotion of urdu as "unifying" national language, such as the muttahida quami movement, communist party of pakistan frontier dialects issue in punjabi due to many historical, religious and political reasons, the punjabi language has faced questions about the relatedness or unity of the dialects native to the frontier areas of the punjabi speaking region.

as with many language-dialect controversies, issues of identity play a role in the varying opinions on the subject.

for example, the sikh community of the punjab region identify their ethnicity and language as "punjabi", regardless of the dialect they speak.

with the muslim and hindu communities, political and regional identities impact the self-identification of both individual speakers and scholars.

regarding the question of whether a region's native speech is considered an independent language or a dialect of punjabi, dogri and seraiki are two that are commonly debated.

the speeches of the lahnda dialect continuum, including saraiki and hindko, are considered as dialects of punjabi by many linguists but as distinct languages by others.

in indo-aryan dialectology generally, the presence of transitional dialects creates problems in assigning some dialects to one or another "language".

however, over the last century there has usually been little disagreement when it comes to defining the core region of the punjabi language.

the british linguist george abraham grierson came to the conclusion that a group of dialects known collectively as "western punjabi" spoken north and west of the punjab heartland, in the indus valley itself and on the lower reaches of the other four tributaries excluding the beas river , in fact constituted a language distinct from punjabi.

he named this group of dialects "lahnda" in a volume of the language survey of india lsi published in 1919.

he grouped as "southern lahnda" the dialects that are now recognised as saraiki.

in the national census of pakistan 1981 saraiki and hindko previously categorised as "western punjabi" , got the status of separate languages, which explains the decrease in the percentage of punjabi speakers.

dogri is spoken in hilly areas of jammu and kashmir and northern himachal pradesh specially by hindus.

on 22 december 2003, dogri was recognised as a national language of india in the indian constitution.

however sikhs speaking dogri or other pahari dialects identifies themselves as punjabi speaker.

multani question in pakistan and india -multani dialects speakers are diveded between pakistan and india.

in pakistan punjabi is not given official status and it did not provide a chance to unite whole punjab to follow standard punjabi unlike from indian punjab.

punjabi began to face disputes about dialects from areas extremely far in north or south punjab region.

punjabi language in india in the 1950s, the linguistic groups across india sought statehood, which led to the establishment of the states reorganisation commission in dec 1953.

at that time, the punjab state of india included present-day states of punjab, haryana and himachal pradesh some parts along with chandigarh.

punjabi suba movement was aimed at creation of a punjabi-majority subah "province" in the punjab region of india in the 1950s.

the government of india was wary of carving out a separate punjabi language state, because it effectively meant dividing the state along religious lines sikhs would form a 60% majority in the resulting punjabi state.

fresh from the memory of the violent religion-based partition of india in 1947, the punjabi hindus were also concerned about living in a sikh-majority state.

the hindu newspapers from jalandhar, exhorted the punjabi hindus to declare hindi as their "mother tongue", so that the punjabi suba proponents could be deprived of the argument that their demand was solely linguistic.

this later created a rift between hindus and sikhs of punjab.

the case for creating a punjabi suba was presented to the states reorganisation commission.

in september 1966, the indira gandhi-led union government accepted the demand, and punjab was trifurcated as per the punjab reorganisation act.

areas in the south of punjab that spoke the haryanvi dialect of hindi formed the new state of haryana, while the areas that spoke the pahari dialects were merged to himachal pradesh a union territory at the time .

the remaining areas, except chandigarh, formed the new punjabi-majority state.

until 1966, punjab was a hindu majority state 63.7% .

but during the linguistic partition, the hindu-majority districts were removed from the state.

chandigarh, the planned city built to replace punjab's pre-partition capital lahore, was claimed by both haryana and punjab.

pending resolution of the dispute, it was declared as a separate union territory which would serve as the capital of both the states.

but still some sikh organisations hold the view that trifurcation was not properly carried out, as many punjabi speaking districts went to haryana, since haryana has second largest punjabi speaking population of india & many of its districts are punjabi dominated or have large minorities.

there are still movements to end discrimination to punjabi language implement it in punjabi majority areas like chandigarh, haryana, delhi, uttar pradesh, jammu and kashmir and many institutes like schools-colleges in punjab state itself where punjabi language is ignored.

punjabi language dialects like bauria, bazigari, bhand, dhaha, gojri, lahanda, lubana, odi, rai sikhi and sansi are also becoming extinct in punjab, india.

there is hindi imposition since 1950s and 1960s in state against punjabi language.

despite a rich heritage of punjabi literature, punjabi television serial industry in indian punjab has totally disappeared.

in 2008 by a landmark decision, the punjab government and punjab legislative assembly legislated the punjab languages amendment act, 2008 to make the study of punjabi compulsory up to class tenth in government and private schools applying equally to the schools affiliated to the punjab school education board pseb , central board of secondary education cbse and indian certificate of secondary education icse throughout punjab and all the official work in the government offices and semi-government institutions would be carried on in punjabi.

all official correspondence and the official work in all colleges and universities in the state would also be carried in the punjab language.

institutes working for punjabi punjabi university it was established on the 30 april 1962, and is only the second university in the world to be named after a language, after hebrew university of israel.

research centre for punjabi language technology, punjabi university, patiala.

it is working for development of core technologies for punjabi, digitisation of basic materials, online punjabi teaching, developing software for office use in punjabi, provinding common platform to punjabi cyber community.

machine translation tool for punjabi to hindi, punjabi to urdu nad vice versa and machine transliteration system between gurumukhi and shahmukhi scripts are very popular.

punjabipedia an online encyclopaedia is also launched by patiala university in 2014.

the dhahan prize -the dhahan prize was created award literary works produced in punjabi around the world.

the prize encourages new writing by awarding 25,000 cdn annually to one book of published in either of the two punjabi scripts, gurmukhi or shahmukhi.

two second prizes of 5,000 cdn are also awarded, with the provision that both scripts are represented among the three winners.

the dhahan prize is awarded by canada india education society cies .

software software are available for punjabi language for almost all platforms.

these software are mainly in gurmukhi script.

nowadays, nearly all punjabi newspapers, magazines, journals, and periodicals are composed on computers via various punjabi software programmes, the most widespread of which is inpage desktop publishing package.

microsoft has included punjabi language support in all new versions of windows and both windows vista, msoffice 2007, msoffice 2010, msoffice 2013, are available in punjabi through language interface pack support.

most linux desktop distributions allow the easy installation of punjabi support and translations as well.

apple implemented the punjabi language keyboard across mobile devicesgoogle also provide many applications in punjabi language like google search, google translate, google punjabi input tols gallery see also punjabi wikipedia languages of pakistan languages of india list of indian languages by total speakers list of punjabi-language newspapers hindi-to-punjabi machine translation system notes references grierson, george a. .

grierson's linguistic survey of india.

calcutta.

masica, colin.

1991.

the indo-aryan languages.

cambridge univ.

press.

further reading bhatia, tej.

1993 and 2010.

punjabi a cognitive-descriptive grammar.

london routledge.

series descriptive grammars.

gill h.s.

and gleason, h.a.

1969.

a reference grammar of punjabi.

revised edition.

patiala, punjab, india languages department, punjab university.

shackle, c. 1972.

punjabi.

london english universities press.

chopra, r. m., perso-arabic words in panjabi, in indo-iranica vol.53 .

chopra, r. m.., the legacy of the punjab, 1997, punjabee bradree, calcutta.

singh, chander shekhar 2004 .

punjabi prosody the old tradition and the new paradigm.

sri lanka polgasowita sikuru prakasakayo.

singh, chander shekhar 2014 .

punjabi intonation an experimental study.

muenchen lincom europa.

external links let's learn punjabi animation punjabi film on youtube english to punjabi dictionary learn how to read gurmukhi, muharni and count in gurmukhi punjabi listen to some basic punjabi words on wikibabel online punjabi keyboard for typing in punjabi sikhism , or sikhi punjabi € , pronounced , from sikh, meaning a "disciple", or a "learner" , is a panentheistic religion that originated in the punjab region of the indian subcontinent during the 15th century.

it is one of the youngest of the major world religions.

the fundamental beliefs of sikhism, articulated in the sacred scripture guru granth sahib, include faith and meditation on the name of the one creator, unity of all humankind, engaging in selfless service, striving for social justice for the benefit and prosperity of all, and honest conduct and livelihood while living a householder's life.

sikhism has 25-28 million adherents worldwide and is the ninth-largest religion in the world.

sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of guru nanak, the first guru, and the ten successive sikh gurus.

guru nanak established kartarpur creator's town around 1520 and gathered the original core of the sikh panth community there.

after the death of the tenth guru, guru gobind singh, the sikh scripture, guru granth sahib, became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for sikhs.

an indian religion, sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on absolute truth.

sikhism emphasizes simran meditation on the words of the guru granth sahib , that can be expressed musically through kirtan or internally through nam japo repeat god's name as a means to feel god's presence, and to have control over the "five thieves" lust, rage, greed, attachment and conceit .

hand in hand, secular life is considered to be intertwined with the spiritual life.

guru nanak taught that living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is above the metaphysical truth, and that the ideal man is one who "establishes union with god, knows his will, and carries out that will".

he also established the system of the langar, or communal kitchen, in order to demonstrate the need to share and have equality between all people.

guru hargobind, the sixth sikh guru, established the political temporal miri and spiritual piri realms to be mutually coexistent.

the development of sikhism was influenced by the bhakti movement, however, sikhism was not simply an extension of the bhakti movement.

sikhism developed while the region was being ruled by the mughal empire.

two of the sikh gurus guru arjan and guru tegh bahadur, after they refused to convert to islam, were tortured and executed by the mughal rulers.

the islamic era persecution of sikhs triggered the founding of the khalsa, as an order for freedom of conscience and religion.

a sikh is expected to embody the qualities of a "sant- " a saint-soldier.

sikh terminology the majority of sikh scriptures were originally written in alphabet, a script standardised by guru angad out of scripts used in north india.

adherents of sikhism are known as sikhs, which means students or disciples of the guru.

the anglicized word 'sikhism' is derived from the punjabi verb sikhi, with roots in sikhana to learn , and sikhi connotes the "temporal path of learning".

sikhism is a monistic religion and states that there is one supreme entity holding control of the entire universe.

this entity is referred to as ik onkar.

philosophy and teachings the basis of sikhism lies in the teachings of guru nanak and his successors.

the essence of sikh teaching is summated by guru nanak's words "realization of truth is higher than all else.

higher still is truthful living".

sikh teaching emphasizes the principle of equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, and gender.

sikh principles encourage living life as a householder.

sikhism is a monistic form of monotheistic panentheistic religion.

in sikhism, the concept of "god" is shapeless, timeless, and invisible i.e., unable to be seen with the physical eye , akaal, and alakh.

the beginning of the first composition of sikh scripture is the figure "1" the universality of "god".

it states that "god" is omnipresent and infinite with power over everything, and is signified by the term ik onkar.

sikhs believe that before creation, all that existed was "god" and "god's" hukam will or order .

the concept of god god in sikhism is known as ik onkar, the one supreme reality or the all-pervading spirit which is taken to mean god .

this spirit has no gender in sikhism, though translations may present it as masculine.

it is also akaal purkh beyond time and space and nirankar without form .

in addition, nanak wrote that there are many worlds on which it has created life.

nanak further states that the understanding of akaal is beyond human beings, but at the same time not wholly unknowable.

akaal is omnipresent sarav in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened.

nanak stressed that god must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment of heavenly life.

guru nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between god and human beings.

the mul mantar, the opening line of the guru granth sahib and each subsequent raga, mentions ik oankar € transliteration ikk sat i - u purakh u nirabha'u niravair u a i saibhan gur a i .

"there is but one all-pervading spirit, and truth is its name!

it exists in all creation it does not fear it does not hate it is timeless and universal and self-existent, you will come to know it through seeking knowledge and learning!"

worldly illusion as a temporary illusion or "unreality" one of the core deviations from the pursuit of god and salvation where worldly attractions which give only illusory temporary satisfaction and pain which distract the process of the devotion of god.

however, nanak emphasised as not a reference to the unreality of the world, but of its values.

in sikhism, the influences of ego, anger, greed, attachment, and as the five believed to be particularly distracting and hurtful.

sikhs believe the world is currently in a state of kali yuga age of darkness because the world is led astray by the love of and attachment to maya.

the fate of people vulnerable to the five thieves ' chor' , is separation from god, and the situation may be remedied only after intensive and relentless devotion.

the timeless truth according to guru nanak the supreme purpose of human life is to reconnect with akal the timeless one , however, egotism is the biggest barrier in doing this.

using the guru's teaching remembrance of the divine word or the name of the lord leads to the end of egotism.

guru nanak designated the word 'guru' meaning teacher to mean the voice of "the spirit" the source of knowledge and the guide to salvation.

as ik onkar is universally immanent, guru is indistinguishable from "akal" and are one and the same.

one connects with guru only with accumulation of selfless search of truth.

ultimately the seeker realizes that it is the consciousness within the body which is seeker follower of the word that is the true guru.

the human body is just a means to achieve the reunion with truth.

once truth starts to shine in a person's heart, the essence of current and past holy books of all religions is understood by the person.

liberation guru nanak's teachings are founded not on a final destination of heaven or hell but on a spiritual union with the akal which results in salvation or jivanmukta liberation whilst alive , a concept also found in hinduism.

guru gobind singh makes it clear that human birth is obtained with great fortune, therefore one needs to be able to make the most of this life.

sikhs believe in reincarnation and karma concepts found in hinduism and buddhism.

however, in sikhism both karma and liberation "is modified by the concept of god's grace" nadar, mehar, kirpa, karam etc.

guru nanak states "the body takes birth because of karma, but salvation is attained through grace".

to get closer to god sikhs avoid the evils of maya, keep the everlasting truth in mind, practice shabad kirtan, meditate on naam, and serve humanity.

sikhs believe that being in the company of the satsang or sadh sangat is one of the key ways to achieve liberation from the cycles of reincarnation.

power and meditation shakti and bhakti sikhism was influenced by bhakti movement, but it was not simply an extension of the bhakti movement.

sikhism, for instance, disagreed with some views of bhakti saints kabir and ravidas.

guru nanak, the first sikh guru and the founder of sikhism, was a bhakti saint.

he taught, states jon mayled, that the most important form of worship is bhakti.

guru arjan, in his sukhmani sahib, recommended the true religion is one of loving devotion to god.

the sikh scripture guru granth sahib includes suggestions on how a sikh should perform constant bhakti.

some scholars call sikhism a bhakti sect of indian traditions, adding that it emphasizes "nirguni bhakti", that is loving devotion to a divine without qualities or physical form.

however, sikhism also accepts saguni concept, that is a divine with qualities and form.

while western scholarship generally places sikhism as arising primarily within a hindu bhakti movement milieu while recognizing some sufi islamic influences, indian sikh scholars disagree and state that sikhism transcended the environment it emerged from.

some sikh sects outside the punjab-region of india, such as those found in maharashtra and bihar, practice aarti with lamps during bhakti in a sikh gurdwara.

but, most sikh gurdwaras forbid the ceremonial use of lamps aarti during their bhakti practices.

while emphasizing bhakti, the sikh gurus also taught that the spiritual life and secular householder life are intertwined.

in sikh worldview, the everyday world is part of the infinite reality, increased spiritual awareness leads to increased and vibrant participation in the everyday world.

guru nanak, states sonali marwaha, described living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" as being higher than the metaphysical truth.

the 6th sikh guru, guru hargobind, after guru arjan martyrdom and faced with oppression by the islamic mughal empire, affirmed the philosophy that the political temporal miri and spiritual piri realms are mutually coexistent.

according to the 9th sikh guru, tegh bahadur, the ideal sikh should have both shakti power that resides in the temporal , and bhakti spiritual meditative qualities .

this was developed into the concept of the saint soldier by the 10th sikh guru, gobind singh.

the concept of man as elaborated by guru nanak, states arvind-pal singh mandair, refines and negates the "monotheistic concept of self god", and "monotheism becomes almost redundant in the movement and crossings of love".

the goal of man, taught the sikh gurus, is to end all dualities of "self and other, i and not-i", attain the "attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course of daily life".

singing and music sikhs refer to the hymns of the gurus as gurbani the guru's word .

shabad kirtan is the singing of gurbani.

the entire verses of guru granth sahib are written in a form of poetry and rhyme to be recited in thirty one ragas of the classical indian music as specified.

however, the exponents of these are rarely to be found amongst the sikhs who are conversant with all the ragas in the guru granth sahib.

guru nanak started the shabad kirtan tradition and taught that listening to kirtan is a powerful way to achieve tranquility while meditating singing of the glories of the supreme timeless one god with devotion is the most effective way to come in communion with the supreme timeless one.

the three morning prayers for sikhs consist of japji sahib, jaap sahib and tav-prasad savaiye.

baptized sikhs - amritdharis, rise early and meditate and then recite all the five banis of nitnem before breakfast.

remembrance of the divine name a key practice by sikhs is remembrance of the divine name naam the name of the lord .

this contemplation is done through japna repetition of the divine name or naam simran remembrance of the divine name through recitation .

the verbal repetition of the name of god or a sacred syllable has been an ancient established practice in religious traditions in india, however, sikhism developed naam-simran as an important bhakti practice.

guru nanak's ideal is the total exposure of one's being to the divine name and a total conforming to dharma or the "divine order".

nanak described the result of the disciplined application of as a "growing towards and into god" through a gradual process of five stages.

the last of these is sach the realm of truth final union of the spirit with god.

service and action the sikh gurus taught that by constantly remembering the divine name nam simaran and through selfless service, or , the devotee overcomes egoism haumai .

this, it states, is the primary root of five evil impulses and the cycle of rebirth.

service in sikhism takes three forms "tan" - physical service "man" - mental service such as studying to help others and "dhan" - material service.

sikhism stresses kirat that is "honest work".

sikh teachings also stress the concept of sharing, or , giving to the needy for the benefit of the community.

justice and equality sikhism regards "justice" and "restorative justice" and "divine justice" as trumping any subjective codes of moral order.

the word in punjabi used to depict this is "niau" which means justice.

the word "dharam" righteousness is also used to convey justice "in the sense of the moral order".

"an attack on dharam is an attack on justice, on righteousness, and on the moral order generally".

according to the tenth sikh guru, guru gobind singh "when all efforts to restore peace prove useless and no words avail, lawful is the flash of steel, it is right to draw the sword".

men and women are equal in sikhism and share the same rights.

in contrast, while other faiths have been arguing in recent times on female priest ordination, women have been leading prayers at sikh temples since the founding of sikhism.

ten gurus and authority the term guru comes from the sanskrit , meaning teacher, guide, or mentor.

the traditions and philosophy of sikhism were established by ten gurus from 1469 to 1708.

each guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous, resulting in the creation of the sikh religion.

guru nanak was the first guru and appointed a disciple as successor.

guru gobind singh was the final guru in human form.

before his death, guru gobind singh decreed in 1708, that the granth would be the final and perpetual guru of the sikhs.

guru nanak stated that his guru is god who is the same from the beginning of time to the end of time.

nanak claimed to be god's mouthpiece, god's slave and servant and even god's dog, but maintained that he was only a guide and teacher, was neither a reincarnation of god nor in any way related to god.

nanak stated that the human guru is mortal and not divine, who is to be respected and loved but not worshipped.

when guru, or satguru the true guru is used in gurbani it is often referring to the internal soul rather than a living guru.

guru angad succeeded guru nanak.

later, an important phase in the development of sikhism came with the third successor, guru amar das.

guru nanak's teachings emphasised the pursuit of salvation guru amar das began building a cohesive community of followers with initiatives such as sanctioning distinctive ceremonies for birth, marriage, and death.

amar das also established the manji comparable to a diocese system of clerical supervision.

guru amar das's successor and son-in-law guru ram das founded the city of amritsar, which is home of the harimandir sahib and regarded widely as the holiest city for all sikhs.

guru arjan was captured by mughal authorities who were suspicious and hostile to the religious order he was developing.

his persecution and death inspired his successors to promote a military and political organization of sikh communities to defend themselves against the attacks of mughal forces.

the sikh gurus established a mechanism which allowed the sikh religion to react as a community to changing circumstances.

the sixth guru, guru hargobind, was responsible for the creation of the concept of akal takht throne of the timeless one , which serves as the supreme decision-making centre of sikhism and sits opposite the harmandir sahib.

the sarbat a representative portion of the khalsa panth historically gathers at the akal takht on special festivals such as vaisakhi or hola mohalla and when there is a need to discuss matters that affect the entire sikh nation.

a literally, guru's intention is an order passed by the sarbat in the presence of the granth .

a may only be passed on a subject that affects the fundamental principles of sikh religion it is binding upon all sikhs.

the term literally, edict or royal order is often used interchangeably with the term .

however, a formally refers to a hymn from the granth which is a given order to sikhs.

the word guru in sikhism also refers to akal purkh god , and god and guru are often synonymous in gurbani sikh writings .

sikhism does not subscribe to the theory of incarnation or the concept of prophethood, states singha, but "it has a pivotal concept of guru he is not an incarnation of god, not even a prophet he is an illumined soul."

scripture there is one primary scripture for the sikhs the granth .

it is sometimes synonymously referred to as the granth.

chronologically, however, the granth literally, the first volume, refers to the version of the scripture created by guru arjan in 1604.

the granth is the final expanded version of the scripture compiled by guru gobind singh.

while the guru granth sahib is an unquestioned scripture in sikhism, another important religious text, the dasam granth, does not enjoy universal consensus, and is considered a secondary scripture by many sikhs.

adi granth the granth was compiled primarily by bhai gurdas under the supervision of guru arjan between the years 1603 and 1604.

it is written in the script, which is a descendant of the script used in the punjab at that time.

the script was standardised by guru angad, the second guru of the sikhs, for use in the sikh scriptures and is thought to have been influenced by the and scripts.

an authoritative scripture was created to protect the integrity of hymns and teachings of the sikh gurus, and thirteen hindu and two muslim bhagats of the bhakti movement sant tradition in medieval india.

the thirteen hindu bhagats whose teachings were entered into the text included ramananda, namdev, pipa, ravidas, beni, bhikhan, dhanna, jaidev, parmanand, sadhana, sain, surdas, trilochan, while the two muslim bhagats were kabir and sufi saint farid.

guru granth sahib the guru grant sahib is the holy scripture of the sikhs, and regarded as the living guru.

compilation the final version of the granth was compiled by guru gobind singh in 1678.

it consists of the original granth with the addition of guru tegh bahadur's hymns.

the predominant bulk of guru granth sahib is compositions by seven sikh gurus guru nanak, guru angad, guru amar das, guru ram das, guru arjan, guru teg bahadur and guru gobind singh.

it also contains the traditions and teachings of thirteen hindu bhakti movement sants saints such as ramananda, namdev among others, and two muslim saints namely kabir and the sufi sheikh farid.

the text comprises 6,000 line compositions , which are poetically rendered and set to rhythmic ancient north indian classical form of music.

the bulk of the scripture is classified into thirty-one , with each granth subdivided according to length and author.

the hymns in the scripture are arranged primarily by the in which they are read.

language and script the main language used in the scripture is known as sant , a language related to both punjabi and hindi and used extensively across medieval northern india by proponents of popular devotional religion bhakti .

the text is printed in gurumukhi script, believed to have been developed by guru angad, but it shares the indo-european roots found in numerous regional languages of india.

teachings the vision in the guru granth sahib, states torkel brekke, is a society based on divine justice without oppression of any kind.

the granth begins with the mantra, an iconic verse created by nanak punjabi € iso 15919 transliteration ika sati purakhu nirabha'u niravairu gura .

simplified transliteration ik sat purkh nirbha'u nirvair gur .

translation one god exists, truth by name, creative power, without fear, without enmity, timeless form, unborn, self-existent, by the guru's grace.

as guru after the death of the tenth guru, guru gobind singh, the guru granth sahib became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for sikhs punjabi ‹ ˆ ‚ ‹ transliteration sabb hukam hai granth.

english all sikhs are commanded to take the granth as guru.

the guru granth sahib is installed in sikh gurdwara temple many sikhs bow or prostrate before it on entering the temple, and just like rama or krishna symbols are cared for in some large hindu temples, the guru granth sahib is installed every morning and put to bed at night in many gurdwaras.

the granth is revered as eternal and the spiritual authority.

myrvold notes that copies of the guru granth sahib are not regarded as material objects, but as living subjects which are alive.

sikhs are well aware that the book itself "cannot come alive in a human sense," they treat it as a person, for which funerary services are performed when the copy is old and damaged he fire sacrifice defines the moment when the eternal "spirit" of the guru separates from the scriptural body and the guru's temporal manifestation ceases to live.

in india the guru granth sahib is even officially recognized by the supreme court of india as a judicial person which can receive donations and own land.

yet, some sikhs also warn that, without true comprehension of the text, veneration for the text can lead to bibliolatry, with the concrete form of the teachings becoming the object of worship instead of the teachings themselves.

relation to hinduism and islam the sikh scripture uses hindu terminology extensively, with hundreds of references to the vedas, and the names of gods and goddesses in hindu bhakti movement traditions, such as vishnu, shiva, brahma, parvati, lakshmi, saraswati, rama, krishna in order to explain its divine message.

it also refers to the spiritual concepts in hinduism ishvara, bhagavan, brahman and the concept of god in islam allah to assert that these are just "alternate names for the almighty one".

while the guru granth sahib acknowledges and respects the god in the vedas, puranas and quran, it does not imply a syncretic bridge between hinduism and islam, but emphasizes focusing on japu repeating mantra with the name of god , instead of muslim practices such as circumcision or praying on carpet, or hindu rituals such as wearing thread or praying in river.

dasam granth the dasam granth is a scripture of sikhs which contains texts attributed to the guru gobind singh.

the dasam granth is important to a great number of sikhs, however it does not have the same authority as the guru granth sahib.

some compositions of the dasam granth like jaap sahib, amrit savaiye , and benti chaupai are part of the daily prayers nitnem for sikhs.

the dasam granth is largely versions of hindu mythology from the puranas, secular stories from a variety of sources called charitro pakhyan tales to protect careless men from perils of lust.

five versions of dasam granth exist, and the authenticity of the dasam granth is amongst the most debated topics within sikhism.

the text played a significant role in sikh history, but in modern times parts of the text have seen antipathy and discussion among sikhs.

janamsakhis the literally birth stories , are writings which profess to be biographies of nanak.

although not scripture in the strictest sense, they provide a hagiographic look at nanak's life and the early start of sikhism.

there are contradictory and sometimes and they are not held in the same regard as other sources of scriptural knowledge.

observances observant sikhs adhere to long-standing practices and traditions to strengthen and express their faith.

the daily recitation from memory of specific passages from the granth , especially the japu or , literally chant hymns is recommended immediately after rising and bathing.

family customs include both reading passages from the scripture and attending the gurdwara also , meaning the doorway to god sometimes transliterated as gurudwara .

there are many gurdwaras prominently constructed and maintained across india, as well as in almost every nation where sikhs reside.

gurdwaras are open to all, regardless of religion, background, caste, or race.

worship in a gurdwara consists chiefly of singing of passages from the scripture.

sikhs will commonly enter the gurdwara, touch the ground before the holy scripture with their foreheads.

the recitation of the eighteenth century is also customary for attending sikhs.

the recalls past sufferings and glories of the community, invoking divine grace for all humanity.

the gurdwara is also the location for the historic sikh practice of "langar" or the community meal.

all gurdwaras are open to anyone of any faith for a free meal, always vegetarian.

people eat together, and the kitchen is maintained and serviced by sikhs.

sikh festivals events the festivals in sikhism mostly commemorate the lives of the gurus and sikh martyrs, the most sacred events being vaisakhi and the births of guru nanak, guru ram das and guru gobind singh.

the sgpc, the sikh organisation in charge of upkeep of the historical gurdwaras of punjab, organises celebrations based on the new nanakshahi calendar.

this calendar is highly controversial among sikhs and is not universally accepted.

sikh festivals include the following gurpurbs are celebrations or commemorations based on the lives of the sikh gurus.

they tend to be either birthdays or celebrations of sikh martyrdom.

all ten gurus have gurpurbs on the nanakshahi calendar, but it is guru nanak and guru gobind singh who have a gurpurb that is widely celebrated in gurdwaras and sikh homes.

the martyrdoms are also known as a shaheedi gurpurbs, which mark the martyrdom anniversary of guru arjan and guru tegh bahadur.

since 2011 the gurpurb of guru har rai march 14 has been celebrated as sikh vatavaran diswas sikh environment day .

guru har rai was the seventh guru, known as a gentle man who cared for animals and the environment.

the day is marked by worldwide events, including tree plantings, rubbish clearances and celebrations of the natural world.

nagar kirtan involves the processional singing of holy hymns throughout a community.

while practiced at any time, it is customary in the month of visakhi or vaisakhi .

traditionally, the procession is led by the saffron-robed panj piare the five beloved of the guru , who are followed by the guru granth sahib, the holy sikh scripture, which is placed on a float.

vaisakhi which includes parades and nagar kirtan occurs on 13 april.

sikhs celebrate it because on this day which fell on 30 march 1699, the tenth guru, gobind singh, inaugurated the khalsa, the 11th body of guru granth sahib and leader of sikhs till eternity.

bandi chhor celebrates guru hargobind's release from the gwalior fort, with several innocent hindu kings who were also imprisoned by jahangir, on 26 october 1619.

this day usually commemorated on the same day of hindu festival of diwali.

hola mohalla occurs the day after holi and is when the khalsa gather at anandpur and display their individual and team warrior skills, including fighting and riding.

ceremonies and customs guru nanak taught that rituals, religious ceremonies, or idol worship are of little use and sikhs are discouraged from fasting or going on pilgrimages.

sikhs do not believe in converting people but converts to sikhism by choice are welcomed.

the morning and evening prayers take around two hours a day, starting in the very early morning hours.

the first morning prayer is guru nanak's jap ji.

jap, meaning "recitation", refers to the use of sound, as the best way of approaching the divine.

like combing hair, hearing and reciting the sacred word is used as a way to comb all negative thoughts out of the mind.

the second morning prayer is guru gobind singh's universal jaap sahib.

the guru addresses god as having no form, no country, and no religion but as the seed of seeds, sun of suns, and the song of songs.

the jaap sahib asserts that god is the cause of conflict as well as peace, and of destruction as well as creation.

devotees learn that there is nothing outside of god's presence, nothing outside of god's control.

devout sikhs are encouraged to begin the day with private meditations on the name of god.

upon a child's birth, the guru granth sahib is opened at a random point and the child is named using the first letter on the top left hand corner of the left page.

all boys are given the last name singh, and all girls are given the last name kaur this was once a title which was conferred on an individual upon joining the khalsa .

sikhs are required to marry when they are of a sufficient age child marriage is taboo , and without regard for the future spouse's caste or descent.

sikhs are joined in wedlock through the anand ceremony.

the marriage ceremony is performed in the company of the guru granth sahib around which the couple circles four times.

after the ceremony is complete, the husband and wife are considered "a single soul in two bodies.

", according to sikh religious rites, neither husband nor wife is permitted to divorce unless special circumstances arise.

a sikh couple that wishes to divorce may be able to do so in a civil court.

upon death, the body of a sikh is usually cremated.

if this is not possible, any respectful means of disposing the body may be employed.

the and prayers are performed during the funeral ceremony known as antim .

baptism and the khalsa khalsa meaning "sovereign" is the collective name given by guru gobind singh to those sikhs who have been initiated by taking part in a ceremony called ammrit nectar ceremony .

during this ceremony, sweetened water is stirred with double-edged sword while liturgical prayers are sung and is offered to the initiating sikh, who ritually drinks it.

many adherents of sikhism do not undergo this ceremony, but still adhere to some components of the faith and identify as sikhs.

the initiated sikh, considered reborn, is referred to as khalsa sikh, while those who do not get baptized are referred to as sahajdhari sikhs.

the first time that this ceremony took place was on vaisakhi, which fell on 30 march 1699 at anandpur sahib in punjab.

it was on that occasion that gobind singh baptised the five beloved ones, who in turn baptised guru gobind singh himself.

to males who initiated, the last name singh, meaning "lion", was given, while the last name kaur, meaning "princess", was given to baptized sikh females.

baptised sikhs ritually wear five items, called the five ks in punjabi known as or , at all times.

the five items are uncut hair , small wooden comb , circular steel or iron bracelet , sword dagger , and kacchera special undergarment .

the five ks have both practical and symbolic purposes.

history guru nanak , the founder of sikhism, was born in the village of , now called nankana sahib in present-day pakistan .

his parents were khatri hindus.

as a boy, nanak was fascinated by god and religion.

he would not partake in religious rituals or customs and oddly meditated alone.

his desire to explore the mysteries of life eventually led him to leave home and take missionary journeys.

in his early teens, nanak caught the attention of the local landlord rai bular bhatti, who was moved by his amazing intellect and divine qualities.

rai bular bhatti was witness to many incidents in which nanak enchanted him and as a result rai bular bhatti and nanak's sister bibi nanki, became the first persons to recognise the divine qualities in nanak.

both of them then encouraged and supported nanak to study and travel.

at the age of thirty, nanak went missing and was presumed to have drowned after going for one of his morning baths to a local stream called the kali bein.

he reappeared three days later and declared "there is no hindu, there is no muslim" in punjabi, " " .

it was from this moment that nanak would begin to spread the teachings of what was then the beginning of sikhism.

although the exact account of his itinerary is disputed, hagiographic accounts state he made five major journeys, spanning thousands of miles, the first tour being east towards bengal and assam, the second south towards andhra and tamil nadu, the third north towards kashmir, ladakh, and to mount sumeru in tibet, and the fourth tour west towards baghdad and mecca.

in his last and final tour, he returned to the banks of the ravi river to end his days.

there are two competing theories on guru nanak's teachings.

one, according to cole and sambhi, is based on hagiographical janamsakhis, and states that nanak's teachings and sikhism were a revelation from god, and not a social protest movement nor any attempt to reconcile hinduism and islam in the 15th century.

the other states, nanak was a guru.

according to singha, "sikhism does not subscribe to the theory of incarnation or the concept of prophethood.

but it has a pivotal concept of guru.

he is not an incarnation of god, not even a prophet.

he is an illumined soul."

the hagiographical janamsakhis were not written by nanak, but by later followers without regard for historical accuracy, and contain numerous legends and myths created to show respect for nanak.

the term revelation, clarify cole and sambhi, in sikhism is not limited to the teachings of nanak, they include all sikh gurus, as well as the words of past, present and future men and women, who possess divine knowledge intuitively through meditation.

the sikh revelations include the words of non-sikh bhagats, some who lived and died before the birth of nanak, and whose teachings are part of the sikh scriptures.

the adi granth and successive sikh gurus repeatedly emphasized, states mandair, that sikhism is "not about hearing voices from god, but it is about changing the nature of the human mind, and anyone can achieve direct experience and spiritual perfection at any time".

scholars state that in its origins, sikhism was influenced by the nirguni formless god tradition of bhakti movement in medieval india.

nanak was raised in a hindu family and belonged to the bhakti sant tradition.

the roots of the sikh tradition are, states louis fenech, perhaps in the sant-tradition of india whose ideology grew to become the bhakti tradition.

furthermore, adds fenech, "indic mythology permeates the sikh sacred canon, the guru granth sahib and the secondary canon, the dasam granth and adds delicate nuance and substance to the sacred symbolic universe of the sikhs of today and of their past ancestors".

growth of sikhism in 1539, guru nanak chose his disciple as a successor to the guruship rather than either of his sons.

was named guru angad and became the second guru of the sikhs.

nanak conferred his choice at the town of kartarpur on the banks of the river ravi, where nanak had finally settled down after his travels.

though sri chand was not an ambitious man, the udasis believed that the guruship should have gone to him, since he was a man of pious habits in addition to being nanak's son.

on nanak's advice, guru angad moved from kartarpur to khadur, where his wife khivi and children were living, until he was able to bridge the divide between his followers and the udasis.

guru angad continued the work started by guru nanak and is widely credited for standardising the script as used in the sacred scripture of the sikhs.

guru amar das became the third sikh guru in 1552 at the age of 73.

goindval became an important centre for sikhism during the guruship of guru amar das.

he preached the principle of equality for women by prohibiting purdah and sati.

guru amar das also encouraged the practice of langar and made all those who visited him attend before they could speak to him.

in 1567, emperor akbar sat with the ordinary and poor people of the punjab to have .

guru amar das also trained 146 apostles of which 52 were women, to manage the rapid expansion of the religion.

before he died in 1574 aged 95, he appointed his son-in-law , a khatri of the sodhi clan, as the fourth sikh guru.

became guru ram das and vigorously undertook his duties as the new guru.

he is responsible for the establishment of the city of ramdaspur later to be named amritsar.

before ramdaspur, amritsar was known as guru da chakk.

in 1581, guru son of the fourth the fifth guru of the sikhs.

in addition to being responsible for building the harimandir sahib, he prepared the sikh sacred text known as the granth literally the first book and included the writings of the first five gurus and other enlightened hindu and muslim saints.

in 1606, he was tortured and killed by the mughal emperor jahangir, for refusing to make changes to the granth and for not converting to islam.

his martyrdom is considered a watershed event in the history of sikhism.

political advancement guru hargobind became the sixth guru of the sikhs.

he carried two for spiritual and the other for temporal reasons known as and in sikhism .

sikhs grew as an organized community and under the 10th guru the sikhs developed a trained fighting force to defend their independence.

in 1644, guru har rai became guru followed by guru har krishan, the boy guru, in 1661.

guru har krishan helped to heal many sick people.

coming into contact with so many people every day, he too was infected and taken seriously ill and later died.

no hymns composed by these three gurus are included in the guru granth sahib.

guru tegh bahadur became guru in 1665 and led the sikhs until 1675.

guru tegh bahadur was executed by aurangzeb for helping to protect one's right to freedom of religion, after a delegation of kashmiri pandits came to him for help when the emperor began to persecute those who refused to convert to islam.

he was succeeded by his son, gobind rai who was just nine years old at the time of his father's death.

gobind rai further militarised his followers, and was baptised by the “ when he inaugurated the khalsa on 30 march 1699.

from here on in he was known as guru gobind singh.

from the time of nanak the sikhs had significantly transformed.

even though the core sikh spiritual philosophy was never affected, the followers now began to develop a political identity.

conflict with mughal authorities escalated during the lifetime of guru teg bahadur and guru gobind singh.

sikh confederacy and the rise of the khalsa the tenth guru of sikhism, guru gobind singh, inaugurated the khalsa the collective body of all initiated sikhs as the sikh temporal authority in the year 1699.

the khalsa is a disciplined community that combines its spiritual purpose and goals with political and military duties.

shortly before his death, guru gobind singh proclaimed the granth the sikh holy scripture to be the ultimate spiritual authority for the sikhs, to be worshipped and bowed to.

the sikh khalsa's rise to power began in the 17th century during a time of growing militancy against mughal rule.

the creation of a sikh empire began when guru gobind singh sent a sikh general, banda singh bahadur, to fight the mughal rulers of india and those who had committed atrocities against pir buddhu shah.

banda singh advanced his army towards the main muslim mughal city of sirhind and, following the instructions of the guru, punished all the culprits.

soon after the invasion of sirhind, while resting in his chamber after the rehras prayer guru gobind singh was stabbed by a pathan assassin hired by mughals.

gobind singh killed the attacker with his sword.

though a european surgeon stitched the guru's wound, the wound re-opened as the guru tugged at a hard strong bow after a few days, causing profuse bleeding that led to gobind singh's death.

after the guru's death, baba banda singh bahadur became the commander-in-chief of the khalsa.

he organized the civilian rebellion and abolished or halted the zamindari system in time he was active and gave the farmers proprietorship of their own land.

banda singh was executed by the emperor farrukh siyar after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to islam.

the confederacy of sikh warrior bands known as misls alongside the development of the dal khalsa achieved a series of sweeping military and diplomatic victories, eventually creating a sikh empire in the punjab under the emperor, maharaja ranjit singh in 1799.

the sikh empire had its capital in lahore, spread over almost 200,000 square miles 520,000 square kilometres comprising what is now afghanistan, pakistan and northern india.

the sikh nation's embrace of military and political organisation made it a considerable regional force in 19th century india and allowed it to retain control of the sikh empire in the face of numerous local uprisings.

the order, traditions and discipline developed over centuries culminated at the time of ranjit singh to give rise to a common religious and social identity.

after the death of ranjit singh in 1839, the sikh empire fell into disorder and, after the assassination of several successors, eventually fell on the shoulders of his youngest son, maharaja duleep singh.

soon after, the british began to attack the sikh kingdom.

both british and sikh sides sustained heavy losses of both troops and materials in the hard-fought first and second anglo-sikh wars.

the empire was eventually annexed by the united kingdom, bringing the punjab under the british raj.

in 1920 sikhs formed the shiromani gurdwara prabandhak committee sgpc, the supreme gurdwara management committee to preserve sikhs' religious and political organizations.

in essence, it protected the sikh's religious, political, and social life from being destroyed and violated.

thus, the sgpc became the modern version of the guru panth given that the committee consisted of elected sikh men and women.

in addition, unlike the british, this committee had no authority over the granthi priests .

these elected members were paid employees who simply oversaw the activities taking place in sikh historic sites.

partition of the violence that was accompanied by the partition of india, historians ian talbot and gurharpal singh write there are numerous eyewitness accounts of the maiming and mutilation of victims.

the catalogue of horrors includes the disembowelling of pregnant women, the slamming of babies' heads against brick walls, the cutting off of victims limbs and genitalia and the display of heads and corpses.

while previous communal riots had been deadly, the scale and level of brutality was unprecedented.

although some scholars question the use of the term 'genocide' with respect to the partition massacres, much of the violence manifested as having genocidal tendencies.

it was designed to cleanse an existing generation as well as prevent its future reproduction.

the newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border.

estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.

the emergency meeting of the joint defense council on 16 august agreed to strengthen the punjab boundary force as quickly as possible.

nehru and liquat visited lahore, ambala, jilandur and amritsar together to see for themselves what was going on and to appeal for peace.

they tried to remind everyone that both india and pakistan had pledged to protect the minorities after the partition and that there was no need for anyone to move home but they were shouting against the hurricane.

each new outrage, each new massacre brought the thirst for revenge and desperate need to flee from the terror as the scale of disaster mounted, tara singh and other sikh leaders toured the province in military vehicles, appealing to stop the violence, but their followers had tasted blood, and it was too late for tara singh to stop what he had begun.

sikhs faced initial opposition from the government in forming a linguistic state that other states in india were afforded.

the akali dal started a non-violence movement for sikh and punjabi rights.

jarnail singh bhindranwale emerged as a leader of the damdami taksal in 1977 and promoted a more militant solution to the problem.

in june 1984, indian prime minister indira gandhi ordered the indian army to launch operation blue star to remove bhindranwale and his followers from the darbar sahib.

bhindranwale and his accompanying followers, as well as many innocent sikhs visiting the temple, were killed during the army's operations.

in october, indira gandhi was assassinated by two of her sikh bodyguards.

the assassination was followed by the 1984 anti-sikh riots.

and hindu-sikh conflicts in punjab, as a reaction to operation blue star and the assassination.

sikh people sikhs firmly believe in sewa service to community and god and simran remembrance of god , the two tenets of sikh life.

the list of prominent sikhs in humanitarian activities include bhai kanhaiya , bhagat puran singh , bhai trilochan singh panesar .

according to sewa singh kalsi, the sikh people have gained a reputation through history for being sturdy, hardworking and adventurous they are a people who have earned the reputation for being extremely brave and loyal soldiers.

they have also become known for being a militant people.

beginning in 1968, yogi bhajan later of the 3ho movement began to teach classes kundalini yoga, resulting in a number of non-punjabi converts to sikhism known as white sikhs in the united states.

since then, thousands of non-punjabis have taken up the sikh belief and lifestyle primarily in the united states, canada, latin america, the far east and australia.

since 2010, the sikh directory has organized the sikh awards, the first sikh award ceremony in the world.

sikh castes although the sikh gurus and sikh religious teachings criticize the hierarchy of the caste system, the caste system is still present in some sikh communities.

the caste system is most commonly still employed in rural punjabi villages.

according to sunrinder s, jodhka, the sikh religion does not advocate discrimination against any caste or creed, however, in practice, sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the lower castes or dalits.

while dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar communal meal .

therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the dalits of punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy.

in 1953, the government of india acceded to the demands of the sikh leader, master tara singh, to include sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes.

in the shiromani gurdwara prabandhak committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste sikhs.

over 60% of sikhs belong to the jat caste, which is an agrarian caste.

despite being very small in numbers, the often wealthy mercantile khatri and arora castes wield considerable influence within the sikh community.

other common sikh castes include the sainis,the kashyap rajput, the ramgarhias artisans , the prajapatis artisan s, the ahluwalias formerly kalals , the kambojs rural caste , the labanas and the two dalit castes, known in sikh terminology as the mazhabis the chuhras and the ramdasias the chamars .

sikh diaspora sikhism is the ninth-largest amongst the major world religions, and one of the youngest.

worldwide, there are 25.8 million sikhs, which makes up 0.39% of the world's population.

approximately 75% of sikhs live in the punjab, where they constitute about 60% of the state's population.

large communities of sikhs live in the neighboring states such as indian state of haryana which is home to the second largest sikh population in india with 1.1 million sikhs as per 2001 census, and large communities of sikhs can be found across india.

however, sikhs only comprise about 2% of the indian population.

sikh migration to canada began in the 19th century and led to the creation of significant sikh communities, predominantly in south vancouver, british columbia, surrey, british columbia, and brampton, ontario.

today temples, newspapers, radio stations, and markets cater to these large, multi-generational indo-canadian groups.

sikh festivals such as vaisakhi and bandi chhor are celebrated in those canadian cities by the largest groups of followers in the world outside the punjab.

sikhs also migrated to east africa, west africa, the middle east, southeast asia, the united kingdom as well as united states and australia.

these communities developed as sikhs migrated out of punjab to fill in gaps in imperial labour markets.

in the early twentieth century a significant community began to take shape on the west coast of the united states.

smaller populations of sikhs are found within many countries in western europe, mauritius, malaysia, fiji, nepal, china, pakistan, afghanistan, iraq, singapore, mexico, the united states and many other countries.

prohibitions in sikhism some prohibitions include cutting hair cutting hair is forbidden in sikhism for those who have taken the amrit initiation ceremony.

these amritdhari or khalsa sikhs are required to keep unshorn hair.

intoxication consumption of alcohol, non-medicinal drugs, tobacco, and other intoxicants is forbidden in sikhism according to the "sikh rahit maryada".

a khalsa amritdhari sikh who consumes any intoxicant is considered patit lapsed, and may be readmitted into khalsa only if re-baptized.

in contrast, nihangs of sikh tradition who protect sikh shrines wearing visible and ready weaponry along with their notable blue turbans, practice meditation with the aid of cannabis.

regular sikhs, in practice however, socially consume some alcohol, while smoking has been historically infrequent among sikhs.

priestly class sikhism does not have priests, but does have liturgical service which employs people for a salary to sing hymns kirtan , officiate an puja or marriage, and perform services at a gurdwara.

any sikh can become a granthi to look after the guru granth sahib, and any sikh is free to read from the guru granth sahib.

eating meat sikhs are strictly prohibited from eating meat from animals slaughtered by halal method, known as kutha meat, where the animal is killed by exsanguination via throat-cutting .

typically meat is not served in community free meals such as langar.

in some small sikh sects, i.e.

akhand kirtani jatha eating any meat is believed to be forbidden, but this is not a universally held belief.

the meat eaten by sikhs is sourced from jhatka method of producing meat.

adultery is forbidden.

see also references further reading external links "sikhism".

britannica online.

sikhism at dmoz religion & a number of introductory articles on sikhism from the bbc sikh history web portal sikhs.org srigranth.org a computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically.

the ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, make computers very applicable to a wide range of tasks.

such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices.

this includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer assisted design, but also in general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones.

the internet is run on computers and it connects millions of other computers.

since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations.

early in the industrial revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms.

more sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century.

the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during world war ii.

the speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then.

conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit cpu , and some form of memory.

the processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information.

peripheral devices include input devices keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.

, output devices monitor screens, printers, etc.

, and input output devices that perform both functions e.g., the 2000s-era touchscreen .

peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.

etymology according to the oxford english dictionary, the first known use of the word "computer" was in 1613 in a book called the yong mans gleanings by english writer richard braithwait "i haue read the truest computer of times, and the best arithmetician that euer breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number."

this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations.

the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century.

from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.

the online etymology dictionary gives the first attested use of "computer" in the "1640s, "one who calculates," this is an "... agent noun from compute v. ".

the online etymology dictionary states that the use of the term to mean "calculating machine" of any type is from 1897."

the online etymology dictionary indicates that the "modern use" of the term, to mean "programmable digital electronic computer" dates from "... 1945 under this name theoretical from 1937, as turing machine".

history pre-20th century devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers.

the earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick.

later record keeping aids throughout the fertile crescent included calculi clay spheres, cones, etc.

which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.

the use of counting rods is one example.

the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks.

the roman abacus was developed from devices used in babylonia as early as 2400 bc.

since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented.

in a medieval european counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.

the antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer", according to derek j. de solla price.

it was designed to calculate astronomical positions.

it was discovered in 1901 in the antikythera wreck off the greek island of antikythera, between kythera and crete, and has been dated to circa 100 bc.

devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.

many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use.

the planisphere was a star chart invented by al- in the early 11th century.

the astrolabe was invented in the hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries bc and is often attributed to hipparchus.

a combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy.

an astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear-wheels was invented by abi bakr of isfahan, persia in 1235. al- invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed-wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear-wheels, circa 1000 ad.

the sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.

the planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.

the slide rule was invented around , shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm.

it is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division.

as slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions.

aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving problems in light aircraft.

to save space and for ease of reading, these are typically circular devices rather than the classic linear slide rule shape.

a popular example is the e6b.

in the 1770s pierre jaquet-droz, a swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll automata that could write holding a quill pen.

by switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced.

in effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions.

along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the d'art et d'histoire of , switzerland, and still operates.

the tide-predicting machine invented by sir william thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters.

it used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

the differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration.

in 1876 lord kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.

in a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output.

the torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work.

starting in the 1920s, vannevar bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.

first computing device charles babbage, an english mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer.

considered the "father of the computer", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century.

after working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an analytical engine, was possible.

the input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the jacquard loom.

for output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell.

the machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later.

the engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as turing-complete.

the machine was about a century ahead of its time.

all the parts for his machine had to be made by hand this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts.

eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the british government to cease funding.

babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.

nevertheless, his son, henry babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit the mill in 1888.

he gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.

analog computers during the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation.

however, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.

the first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by sir william thomson in 1872.

the differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by james thomson, the brother of the more famous lord kelvin.

the art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by h. l. hazen and vannevar bush at mit starting in 1927.

this built on the mechanical integrators of james thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by h. w. nieman.

a dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious.

by the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education control systems and aircraft slide rule .

digital computers electromechanical by 1938 the united states navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine.

this was the torpedo data computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target.

during world war ii similar devices were developed in other countries as well.

early digital computers were electromechanical electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation.

these devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes.

the z2, created by german engineer konrad zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.

in 1941, zuse followed his earlier machine up with the z3, the world's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer.

the z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about hz.

program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard.

it was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers.

rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system used in charles babbage's earlier design , using a binary system meant that zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.

the z3 was turing complete.

vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog.

the engineer tommy flowers, working at the post office research station in london in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange.

experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.

in the us, john vincent atanasoff and clifford e. berry of iowa state university developed and tested the computer abc in 1942, the first "automatic electronic digital computer".

this design was also all-electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.

during world war ii, the british at bletchley park achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted german military communications.

the german encryption machine, enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes.

to crack the more sophisticated german lorenz sz 40 42 machine, used for high-level army communications, max newman and his colleagues commissioned flowers to build the colossus.

he spent eleven months from early february 1943 designing and building the first colossus.

after a functional test in december 1943, colossus was shipped to bletchley park, where it was delivered on 18 january 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 february.

colossus was the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.

it used a large number of valves vacuum tubes .

it had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not turing-complete.

nine mk ii colossi were built the mk i was converted to a mk ii making ten machines in total .

colossus mark i contained 1500 thermionic valves tubes , but mark ii with 2400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than mark 1, greatly speeding the decoding process.

the u.s.-built eniac electronic numerical integrator and computer was the first electronic programmable computer built in the us.

although the eniac was similar to the colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was turing-complete.

like the colossus, a "program" on the eniac was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later.

once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.

it combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems.

it could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine.

it also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root.

high speed memory was limited to 20 words about 80 bytes .

built under the direction of john mauchly and j. presper eckert at the university of pennsylvania, eniac's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945.

the machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

modern computers concept of modern computer the principle of the modern computer was proposed by alan turing in his seminal 1936 paper, on computable numbers.

turing proposed a simple device that he called "universal computing machine" and that is now known as a universal turing machine.

he proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable.

the fundamental concept of turing's design is the stored program, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory.

von neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper.

turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation.

except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal turing machine.

stored programs early computing machines had fixed programs.

changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine.

with the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed.

a stored-program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions a program that details the computation.

the theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid by alan turing in his 1936 paper.

in 1945 turing joined the national physical laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer.

his 1945 report "proposed electronic calculator" was the first specification for such a device.

john von neumann at the university of pennsylvania also circulated his first draft of a report on the edvac in 1945.

the manchester small-scale experimental machine, nicknamed baby, was the world's first stored-program computer.

it was built at the victoria university of manchester by frederic c. williams, tom kilburn and geoff tootill, and ran its first program on 21 june 1948.

it was designed as a testbed for the williams tube, the first random-access digital storage device.

although the computer was considered "small and primitive" by the standards of its time, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.

as soon as the ssem had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable computer, the manchester mark 1.

the mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the ferranti mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.

built by ferranti, it was delivered to the university of manchester in february 1951.

at least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to shell labs in amsterdam.

in october 1947, the directors of british catering company j. lyons & company decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers.

the leo i computer became operational in april 1951 and ran the world's first regular routine office computer job.

transistors the bipolar transistor was invented in 1947.

from 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers.

compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat.

silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life.

transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.

at the university of manchester, a team under the leadership of tom kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.

their first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in april 1955.

however, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 khz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer.

that distinction goes to the harwell cadet of 1955, built by the electronics division of the atomic energy research establishment at harwell.

integrated circuits the next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit.

the idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the royal radar establishment of the ministry of defence, geoffrey w.a.

dummer.

dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the symposium on progress in quality electronic components in washington, d.c. on 7 may 1952.

the first practical ics were invented by jack kilby at texas instruments and robert noyce at fairchild semiconductor.

kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in july 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 september 1958.

in his patent application of 6 february 1959, kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated".

noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than kilby.

his chip solved many practical problems that kilby's had not.

produced at fairchild semiconductor, it was made of silicon, whereas kilby's chip was made of germanium.

this new development heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers and led to the invention of the microprocessor.

while the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor", it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the intel 4004, designed and realized by ted hoff, federico faggin, and stanley mazor at intel.

mobile computers become dominant with the continued miniaturization of computing resources, and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s.

the same developments that spurred the growth of laptop computers and other portable computers allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular phones.

these so-called smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and have become the dominant computing device on the market, with manufacturers reporting having shipped an estimated 237 million devices in 2q 2013.

types computers are typically classified based on their uses based on uses analog computer digital computer hybrid computer based on sizes smartphone micro computer personal computer laptop mini computer mainframe computer super computer hardware the term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects.

circuits, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory ram , motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices are all hardware.

history of computing hardware other hardware topics a general purpose computer has four main components the arithmetic logic unit alu , the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices collectively termed i o .

these parts are interconnected by buses, often made of groups of wires.

inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch.

each circuit represents a bit binary digit of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" in positive logic representation .

the circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

input devices when unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices.

the input devices may be hand-operated or automated.

the act of processing is mainly regulated by the cpu.

some examples of hand-operated input devices are computer keyboard digital camera digital video graphics tablet image scanner joystick microphone mouse overlay keyboard trackball touchscreen output devices the means through which computer gives output are known as output devices.

some examples of output devices are computer monitor printer pc speaker projector sound card video card control unit the control unit often called a control system or central controller manages the computer's various components it reads and interprets decodes the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer.

control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance.

a key component common to all cpus is the program counter, a special memory cell a register that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.

the control system's function is as that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of cpu read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.

decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.

increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.

read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory or perhaps from an input device .

the location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.

provide the necessary data to an alu or register.

if the instruction requires an alu or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.

write the result from the alu back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.

jump back to step 1 .

since the program counter is conceptually just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the alu.

adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program.

instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops instructions that are repeated by the computer and often conditional instruction execution both examples of control flow .

the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex cpu designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.

central processing unit cpu the control unit, alu, and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit cpu .

early cpus were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s cpus have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.

arithmetic logic unit alu the alu is capable of performing two classes of operations arithmetic and logic.

the set of arithmetic operations that a particular alu supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots.

some can only operate on whole numbers integers whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision.

however, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform.

therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic it will take more time to do so if its alu does not directly support the operation.

an alu may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values true or false depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other "is 64 greater than 65?"

logic operations involve boolean logic and, or, xor, and not.

these can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.

superscalar computers may contain multiple alus, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.

graphics processors and computers with simd and mimd features often contain alus that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.

memory a computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read.

each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number.

the computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595."

the information stored in memory may represent practically anything.

letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease.

since the cpu does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

in almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits called a byte .

each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers 28 256 either from 0 to 255 or to 127.

to store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used typically, two, four or eight .

when negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation.

other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts.

a computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically.

modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

the cpu contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area.

there are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of cpu.

registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed.

as data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory which is often slow compared to the alu and control units greatly increases the computer's speed.

computer main memory comes in two principal varieties random-access memory or ram read-only memory or rom ram can be read and written to anytime the cpu commands it, but rom is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the cpu can only read from it.

rom is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions.

in general, the contents of ram are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but rom retains its data indefinitely.

in a pc, the rom contains a specialized program called the bios that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into ram whenever the computer is turned on or reset.

in embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in rom.

software stored in rom is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software.

flash memory blurs the distinction between rom and ram, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable.

it is typically much slower than conventional rom and ram however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.

in more sophisticated computers there may be one or more ram cache memories, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory.

generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.

input output i o i o is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world.

devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals.

on a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer.

hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices.

computer networking is another form of i o. i o devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own cpu and memory.

a graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3d graphics.

modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main cpu in performing i o.

a 2016-era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.

multitasking while a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.

this is achieved by multitasking i.e.

having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.

one means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead.

by remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later.

if several programs are running "at the same time".

then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time.

since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant.

this method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.

before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.

seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input output devices to complete their tasks.

if a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred.

this frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.

multiprocessing some computers are designed to distribute their work across several cpus in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers.

multiprocessor and multi-core multiple cpus on a single integrated circuit personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.

supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers.

they often feature thousands of cpus, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware.

such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once.

supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.

software software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc.

software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built.

computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media.

computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.

when software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with bios rom in an ibm pc compatible computer, it is sometimes called "firmware".

operating systems languages there are thousands of different programming intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.

application software programs the defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed.

that is to say that some type of instructions the program can be given to the computer, and it will process them.

modern computers based on the von neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language.

in practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example.

a typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second gigaflops and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation.

large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.

stored program architecture this section applies to most common ram machine-based computers.

in most cases, computer instructions are simple add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc.

these instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out executed in the order they were given.

however, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there.

these are called "jump" instructions or branches .

furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event.

many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

program execution might be likened to reading a book.

while a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest.

similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met.

this is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.

comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses.

but to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake.

on the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions.

the following example is written in the mips assembly language once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention.

it will almost never make a mistake and a modern pc can complete the task in a fraction of a second.

machine code in most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number its operation code or opcode for short .

the command to add two numbers together would have one opcode the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on.

the simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code.

since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes.

this leads to the important fact that entire programs which are just lists of these instructions can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data.

the fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von neumann, or stored program, architecture.

in some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on.

this is called the harvard architecture after the harvard mark i computer.

modern von neumann computers display some traits of the harvard architecture in their designs, such as in cpu caches.

while it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers machine language and while this technique was used with many early computers, it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs.

instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember a mnemonic such as add, sub, mult or jump.

these mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language.

converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand machine language is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.

programming language programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run.

unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise.

they are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud.

they are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter.

sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.

low-level languages machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them collectively termed low-level programming languages tend to be unique to a particular type of computer.

for instance, an arm architecture computer such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand-held videogame cannot understand the machine language of an x86 cpu that might be in a pc.

high-level languages third generation language though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone.

therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently and thereby help reduce programmer error .

high level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language using another computer program called a compiler.

high level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem s to be solved by the final program.

it is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer.

this is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.

fourth generation languages these 4g languages are less procedural than 3g languages.

the benefit of 4gl is that they provide ways to obtain information without requiring the direct help of a programmer.

an example of a 4gl is sql.

program design program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable.

as problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered.

large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies.

the task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge.

producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.

bugs errors in computer programs are called "bugs".

they may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects.

but in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to "hang", becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash.

otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an exploit, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution.

bugs are usually not the fault of the computer.

since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.

admiral grace hopper, an american computer scientist and developer of the first compiler, is credited for having first used the term "bugs" in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the harvard mark ii computer in september 1947.

firmware firmware is the technology which has the combination of both hardware and software such as bios chip inside a computer.

this chip hardware is located on the motherboard and has the bios set up software stored in it.

networking and the internet computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s.

the u.s. military's sage system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems such as sabre.

in the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the united states began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology.

the effort was funded by arpa now darpa , and the computer network that resulted was called the arpanet.

the technologies that made the arpanet possible spread and evolved.

in time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the internet.

the emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer.

computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer.

initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the world wide web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like ethernet and adsl saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous.

in fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally.

a very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the internet to communicate and receive information.

"wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

misconceptions human computer a computer does not need to be electronic, nor even have a processor, nor ram, nor even a hard disk.

while popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, the modern definition of a computer is literally "a device that computes, especially a programmable electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information."

any device which processes information qualifies as a computer, especially if the processing is purposeful.

unconventional computing historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors.

however, conceptually computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything.

for example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls billiard ball computer an often quoted example.

more realistically, modern computers are made out of transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.

future there is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers, dna computers, neural computers, and quantum computers.

most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed.

however different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring very quickly.

computer architecture paradigms there are many types of computer architectures quantum computer vs. chemical computer scalar processor vs. vector processor non-uniform memory access numa computers register machine vs. stack machine harvard architecture vs. von neumann architecture cellular architecture of all these abstract machines, a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing.

logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms.

the ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators.

the thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility any computer with a minimum capability being turing-complete is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform.

therefore, any type of computer netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.

is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.

artificial intelligence a computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code.

computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

professions and organizations as the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.

the need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.

see also references notes external links media related to computers at wikimedia commons wikiversity has a quiz on this article warhol & the computer shiv kumar batalvi 23 july 1936 7 may 1973 was a punjabi language poet, who was most known for his romantic poetry, noted for its heightened passion, pathos, separation and lover's agony.

he became the youngest recipient of the sahitya akademi award in 1967, given by sahitya akademi india's national academy of letters , for his epic verse play based on the ancient legend of puran bhagat, loona 1965 , now considered a masterpiece in modern punjabi literature, and which also created a new genre, of modern punjabi kissa.

today, his poetry stands in equal footing, amongst that by stalwarts of modern punjabi poetry, like mohan singh poet and amrita pritam, all of whom are popular on both sides of indo-pakistan border.

biography shiv kumar was born on 23 july 1936 though a few documents related to him state 8 october 1937 in village bara pind lohtian, shakargarh tehsil, sialkot district now in punjab province, pakistan , to pandit krishan gopal, village tehsildar in the revenue department, and shanti devi, a housewife.

in 1947, when he was aged 11, his family moved to batala gurdaspur district after partition of india, where his father continued his work as a patwari and young shiv received his primary education.

allegedly, he was a dreamy child, often vanishing for the duration of the day, to be found lying under trees by the riverbank close to the mandir or hindu temple outside the village, lost in a brown reverie.

he appears to have been fascinated by local renditions of the hindu epic ramayana, as well as wandering minstrel singers, snake charmers and the like which feature as metaphors in his poetry, giving it a uniquely rural flavour.

education he completed his matriculation in 1953, from punjab university, and enrolled in the f.sc.

program at baring union christian college, batala, though before completing his degree he moved to s.n.

college, qadian, where he joined the arts program more suited to his persona, though he left that too in the second year.

thereafter he joined a school at baijnath, himachal pradesh to do a diploma in civil engineering, here again he left it in the middle.

next he studied for some time at govt.

ripudaman college, nabha.

youngest recipient of sahitya akademi award later in life, his father got a job as patwari at qadian, it was during this period, that he produced some of his best work.

his first anthology of poems was published in 1960, titled piran da paraga the scarf of sorrows , which became an instant success.

some senior writers of batala, including jaswant singh rahi, kartar singh balgan and barkat ram yumman, as the saying goes, took him under their wings.

in 1965, he became the youngest recipient of the sahitya akademi award in 1967, for his magnum opus, a verse play loona 1965 .

his poetry recitations, and singing his own verse, made him and his work even more popular amongst the masses.

soon after his marriage, in 1968, he shifted to chandigarh, where he joined the state bank of india, as a pro.

in the following years, bad health plagued him, though he continued to write prolifically.

love life he met a girl named maina at a fair in baijnath.

when he went back to look for her in her hometown, he heard the news of her death and wrote his elegy maina.

this episode was to prefigure numerous other partings that would serve as material to distil into poems.

perhaps the most celebrated such episode is his fascination for gurbaksh singh preetlari's daughter who left for the us and married someone else.

when he heard of the birth of her first child, shiv wrote 'main ek shikra yaar banaya', perhaps his most famous love poem.

it's said that when she had her second child, someone asked shiv whether he would write another poem.

shiv replied 'have i become responsible for her?

am i to write a poem on her every time she gives birth to a child?'

sounds much better in punjabi main oda theka leya hoyaa?

oho bacche banayi jave te main ode te kavita banayi javan?

that lady love is still alive as in 2017 and leading a sad and melancholy life far away from india.

during a recent visit to india she confided in a close friend that shiv holds a special place in her heart and she also finds the image of shiv in some distant stars.

she doesn't wish to open the old chapters due to sensitivites of two families involved in it.

let's hope and wish that millions of shiv's fans are told the other side of the story, some day !!

personal life on 5 february 1967 he married, aruna, a brahmin girl, from kirri mangyal, gurdaspur district, and later the couple had two children, meharban 1968 and puja 1969 .

the trip to england in may 1972, shiv visited england on the invitation of dr. gupal puri and mrs. kailash puri he had been looking forward to his first trip abroad as a welcome relief from the drudgery of his life in chandigarh.

when he arrived in england, his popularity and fame had already reached a high point among the punjabi community.

his arrival was announced in the local indian papers with headlines and pictures.

he spent a busy time in england.

a number of public functions and private parties were arranged in his honour where he recited his poetry.

dr. gupal puri arranged the first large function in coventry, near london, to welcome shiv.

a large number of his fans and punjabi poets, including santokh singh santokh, kuldip takhar and tarsem purewal and many others attended this function.

another large gathering was organised at rochester kent in his honour.

the famous artist s. sobha singh was also present who had travelled on his own expense to see shiv.

his engagements in england were regularly reported in the local indian media and the bbc television once interviewed him.

while punjabi community got their opportunity to listen to shiv on various occasions, his stay in london proved to be the last straw for his failing health.

he would stay late and continue to drink until 2 00 or 2 30 in the morning at parties or at home engaged in discussions with his hosts and other people who would come to visit him.

he would wake up after a short sleep around 4 00 a.m. and begin his day by again taking a couple of sips of scotch.

kaur 1998 .

the final days when shiv returned from england in september 1972, his health had declined visibly.

he was now bitterly complaining about the undue criticism of his poetry by the progressive and leftist writers.

he openly started talking about his disappointment at the unjustified condemnation of his poetry.

within a couple of months after his return from england, his health started sinking, never to recover again.

he was in a dire financial predicament during those days and felt that most of his friends had deserted him in his time of need.

his wife, aruna, somehow managed to get him admitted in a hospital in sector 16 of chandigarh where he received treatment for a few days.

a couple of months later, he was admitted in a hospital in amritsar, but left it on his own against the advice of his doctors.

he want to die in a hospital and simply walked out of the hospital and went to his family home in batala.

he was later shifted to the village of his in-laws, kiri mangial, a small village near the border with pakistan.

shiv kumar batalvi died in kiri mangial during the early morning hours of 6 may 1973.

death shiv kumar batalvi's health deteriorated in kiri mangial during the early morning hours of 6 may 1973 whereupon he was brought to pgi hospital, chandigarh.

shiv kumar batalvi died in the 36th year of his life on 7 may 1973 in pgi hospital,chandigarh.

shiv did not die in the hospital.

he died in his inlaws house in kirit mangayal where he went to meet his wife and kids.

he never shifted there.

he shifted from chandigarh to batala only.

legacy one of his anthology, alvida farewell was published posthumously in 1974, by the guru nanak dev university, amritsar.

'shiv kumar batalvi award' for best writer, is given each year.

in media many of his poems were sung by deedar singh pardesi.

jagjit singh-chitra singh, and surinder kaur, have also sung many of his poems.

nusrat fateh ali khan's rendition of one of his poem "maye ni maye" is known for its soulfulness and imagery.

in a recent album, rabbi 2004 , by rabbi shergill features, his poem, "ishtihar".

punjabi folk singer, hans raj hans also did a popular album, 'gham', on the poetry of shiv kumar.

in 2005, a compilation album was released, titled, ek kudi jida naa mohabbat... 'shiv kumar batalvi, with numbers sung by mahendra kapoor, jagjit singh and asa singh mastana.

in 2004, punjabi play titled dardaan da darya based on the life of shiv kumar was performed at 'punjab kala bhavan', chandigarh.

several of his poems have been adapted for movies, e.g.

"ajj din chhadeya tere rang varga," was adapted in 2009 hindi movie love aaj kal which became an instant hit.

in 2012, album titled "panchee ho javan" based on same titled poem written by shiv kumar batalvi was sung by jasleen royal and the album also contains another song "maye ni" based on the poem "maye ni maye".

in 2014, rap duo "swet shop boys", consisting of indo-american himanshu suri, and british pakistani riz ahmed, released a song entitled "batalvi" which sampled shiv kumar batalvi's own recitation of ek kudi jida naam mohabbat from an interview done with aikam tv in the early 1970s.

the songs lyrics explore issues regarding cultural identity faced by many second-generation south asians living in the west.

his poem"ek kudi jihda naam mohabbat ghum hai"featuring alia bhatt sung by diljit dosanjh featured in udta punjab.

works piran da paraga the scarf of sorrows 1960 mainu vida karo bid me farewell 1963 gazlan te geet aarti prayer 1971 lajwanti touch me not 1961 atte dian chirian the sparrows of flour 1962 .

loona 1967 main te main i and me 1970 dardmandan dian aahin sog alvida farewell 1974 shiv kumar sampuran kav sangreh complete works lahore book shop, ludhiana.

birha da sultan, a selection from shiv kumar betalvi's poems , selected by amrita pritam, sahitya akademi, 1993.

isbn 81-7201-417-1.

luna english , tr.

by g.p.

bhatta, sahitya akademi, 2005, isbn 81-260-1873-9.

references https www.youtube.com watch?v zbx nlzv7uu further reading makers of indian literature shiv kumar batalvi, by prof. s.soze, published by sahitya akademi, 2001.

isbn 81-260-0923-3.

shiv kumar batalvi jeevan ate rachna shiv batalvi a solitary and passionate singer, by om prakash sharma, 1979, sterling publishers, new delhi lccn 79-905007.

shiv kumar batalvi, jiwan te rachna, by jeet singh sitola.

lccn 83-900413 shiv kumar da kavi jagat, by dharam pal singola.

lccn 79-900386 shiv kumar, rachna samsar, by amarik singh punni.

lccn 90-902390 shiv kumar, kavi vich birah by surjit singh kanwal.

lccn 88-901976 external links shiv batalvi , www.shivbatalvi.com a biography on shiv kumar batalvi a great collection of shiv kumar batalvi's poems nanak singh 4 july 1897 28 december 1971 , born hans raj, was a poet, songwriter and novelist in the punjabi language.

his writing in support of india's independence movement led the british to arrest him.

he published several novels which won him literary acclaim.

early life he was born as hans raj to a poor punjabi hindu family in the jhelum district now in pakistan and changed his name to nanak singh after adopting sikhism.

due to poverty, he did not receive a formal education.

he started his writing career at an early age, writing verses on historical events.

later, nanak singh started to write devotional songs, encouraging sikhs to join the gurdwara reform movement.

in 1918, he published his first book satguru mehma containing hymns in praise of the sikh gurus, which is considered his first commercial success.

role in freedom struggle on 13 april 1919, british troops shot and killed 379 peaceful rally participants in what became known as the jallianwala bagh massacre on baisakhi punjabi new year day in amritsar.

nanak singh was present at the rally in which two of his friends were killed.

this incident impelled nanak singh to write khooni visakhi bloody baisakhi punjabi new year , an epic poem that mocked and targeted colonial rule.

the british government became extremely concerned about his provocative writing and banned the book.

nanak singh also participated in independence struggle by joining the akali movement.

he began editing akali papers.

this also was noticed by the british government.

singh was charged with participation in unlawful political activities and was sent to borstal jail, lahore.

he described the savagery and oppression of the british on peaceful sikhs during the guru ka bagh morcha demonstration in his second book of poetry, zakhmi dil.

it was published in january 1923 and was banned within two weeks.

nanak singh wrote novels while in jail.

he wrote over 40,000 pages in long hand gurmukhi punjabi script.

he was recognized with many awards, including punjab's highest literary award in 1960.

his great historical novel, ik mian do talwaran one sheath and two swords, 1959 , won him highest literary honour, the sahitya akademi award in 1962.

prolific writer he wrote the novel pavitar paapi in 1942.

the novel became immensely popular and won him literary acclaim.

it was translated into hindi and several other indian languages and was adapted into a successful motion picture pavitra paapi in 1968 by his ardent admirer, balraj sahani.

currently, the novel is in its 28th reprint in punjabi.

his grandson, navdeep singh suri, translated the book into english saintly sinner .

quoting the tribune, "nanak singh was the best selling novelist in india for thirty to forty years.

he wrote over 50 books including novels and collection of short stories.

he made significant contributions to various literary genres.

for him character was the determination of incident and incident the illustration of character.

his greatest contribution to punjabi fiction is its secularisation.

he depicted excerpts from contemporary life, cloaked with a veil of romantic idealism."

in his novel chitta lahu white blood , nanak singh writes, "it seems to imply that in the lifeblood of our society, red corpuscles have disappeared."

in 2011, nanak singh's grandson, dilraj singh suri, translated chitta lahu into english titled white blood .

natasha tolstoy, granddaughter of novelist leo tolstoy, translated nanak singh's novel chitta lahu into russian.

she visited nanak singh in amritsar to present the first copy of the translated novel to him.

bibliography books by nanak singh novel, stories, play, translated novel aastak nastak adam khor adh-khiria phul agg di khed an-site zakham b.a.

pass banjar bhooa charhdi kala chhalawa chitrakar chitta lahu chod chanan dhundle parchhaven dur kinara fauladi phull france da daku gagan damama bajia gangajali vich sharab gharib di duniya hanjuan de har ik mian do talwaran jivan sangram kagtan di beri kal chakkar kati hoyee patang kallo khoon de sohile koi haria boot rahio ri lamma painda love marriage manjhdhar matreyee maan meri duniya merian sadivi yadan middhe hoe phull mittha mauhra nasoor paap di khatti paraschit pathar de khamb pathar kamba patjhar de panchhi pavitar papi piar da devta piar di duniya prem sangeet pujari rabb apne asli rup vich rajni saarh sati sangam sarapian roohan soolan di sej suman kanta sunehri jild supnian di kabar swarg te usde varis taash di aadat tasvir de doven pase thandian chhavan tutte khambh tutti veena vadda doctor te hor kahanian var nahin sarap vishwas ghaat legacy his centenary was celebrated in 1997.

in singh's honour, prime minister inder kumar gujral released a postal stamp in 1998.

references external links trigonometry from greek , "triangle" and metron, "measure" is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles.

the field emerged in the hellenistic world during the 3rd century bc from applications of geometry to astronomical studies.

the 3rd-century astronomers first noted that the lengths of the sides of a right-angle triangle and the angles between those sides have fixed relationships that is, if at least the length of one side and the value of one angle is known, then all other angles and lengths can be determined algorithmically.

these calculations soon came to be defined as the trigonometric functions and today are pervasive in both pure and applied mathematics fundamental methods of analysis such as the fourier transform, for example, or the wave equation, use trigonometric functions to understand cyclical phenomena across many applications in fields as diverse as physics, mechanical and electrical engineering, music and acoustics, astronomy, ecology, and biology.

trigonometry is also the foundation of surveying.

trigonometry is most simply associated with planar right-angle triangles each of which is a two-dimensional triangle with one angle equal to 90 degrees .

the applicability to non-right-angle triangles exists, but, since any non-right-angle triangle on a flat plane can be bisected to create two right-angle triangles, most problems can be reduced to calculations on right-angle triangles.

thus the majority of applications relate to right-angle triangles.

one exception to this is spherical trigonometry, the study of triangles on spheres, surfaces of constant positive curvature, in elliptic geometry a fundamental part of astronomy and navigation .

trigonometry on surfaces of negative curvature is part of hyperbolic geometry.

trigonometry basics are often taught in schools, either as a separate course or as a part of a precalculus course.

history sumerian astronomers studied angle measure, using a division of circles into 360 degrees.

they, and later the babylonians, studied the ratios of the sides of similar triangles and discovered some properties of these ratios but did not turn that into a systematic method for finding sides and angles of triangles.

the ancient nubians used a similar method.

in the 3rd century bc, hellenistic mathematicians such as euclid and archimedes studied the properties of chords and inscribed angles in circles, and they proved theorems that are equivalent to modern trigonometric formulae, although they presented them geometrically rather than algebraically.

in 140 bc, hipparchus from nicaea, asia minor gave the first tables of chords, analogous to modern tables of sine values, and used them to solve problems in trigonometry and spherical trigonometry.

in the 2nd century ad, the greco-egyptian astronomer ptolemy from alexandria, egypt printed detailed trigonometric tables ptolemy's table of chords in book 1, chapter 11 of his almagest.

ptolemy used chord length to define his trigonometric functions, a minor difference from the sine convention we use today.

the value we call sin can be found by looking up the chord length for twice the angle of interest in ptolemy's table, and then dividing that value by two.

centuries passed before more detailed tables were produced, and ptolemy's treatise remained in use for performing trigonometric calculations in astronomy throughout the next 1200 years in the medieval byzantine, islamic, and, later, western european worlds.

the modern sine convention is first attested in the surya siddhanta, and its properties were further documented by the 5th century ad indian mathematician and astronomer aryabhata.

these greek and indian works were translated and expanded by medieval islamic mathematicians.

by the 10th century, islamic mathematicians were using all six trigonometric functions, had tabulated their values, and were applying them to problems in spherical geometry.

at about the same time, chinese mathematicians developed trigonometry independently, although it was not a major field of study for them.

knowledge of trigonometric functions and methods reached western europe via latin translations of ptolemy's greek almagest as well as the works of persian and arabic astronomers such as al battani and nasir al-din al-tusi.

one of the earliest works on trigonometry by a northern european mathematician is de triangulis by the 15th century german mathematician regiomontanus, who was encouraged to write, and provided with a copy of the almagest, by the byzantine greek scholar cardinal basilios bessarion with whom he lived for several years.

at the same time, another translation of the almagest from greek into latin was completed by the cretan george of trebizond.

trigonometry was still so little known in 16th-century northern europe that nicolaus copernicus devoted two chapters of de revolutionibus orbium coelestium to explain its basic concepts.

driven by the demands of navigation and the growing need for accurate maps of large geographic areas, trigonometry grew into a major branch of mathematics.

bartholomaeus pitiscus was the first to use the word, publishing his trigonometria in 1595.

gemma frisius described for the first time the method of triangulation still used today in surveying.

it was leonhard euler who fully incorporated complex numbers into trigonometry.

the works of the scottish mathematicians james gregory in the 17th century and colin maclaurin in the 18th century were influential in the development of trigonometric series.

also in the 18th century, brook taylor defined the general taylor series.

overview if one angle of a triangle is 90 degrees and one of the other angles is known, the third is thereby fixed, because the three angles of any triangle add up to 180 degrees.

the two acute angles therefore add up to 90 degrees they are complementary angles.

the shape of a triangle is completely determined, except for similarity, by the angles.

once the angles are known, the ratios of the sides are determined, regardless of the overall size of the triangle.

if the length of one of the sides is known, the other two are determined.

these ratios are given by the following trigonometric functions of the known angle a, where a, b and c refer to the lengths of the sides in the accompanying figure sine function sin , defined as the ratio of the side opposite the angle to the hypotenuse.

sin a opposite hypotenuse a c .

displaystyle sin a frac textrm opposite textrm hypotenuse frac a ,c , ,.

cosine function cos , defined as the ratio of the adjacent leg to the hypotenuse.

cos a adjacent hypotenuse b c .

displaystyle cos a frac textrm adjacent textrm hypotenuse frac b ,c , ,.

tangent function tan , defined as the ratio of the opposite leg to the adjacent leg.

tan a opposite adjacent a b a c c b a c frac b ,c , frac sin a cos a ,.

the hypotenuse is the side opposite to the 90 degree angle in a right triangle it is the longest side of the triangle and one of the two sides adjacent to angle a.

the adjacent leg is the other side that is adjacent to angle a.

the opposite side is the side that is opposite to angle a.

the terms perpendicular and base are sometimes used for the opposite and adjacent sides respectively.

many people find it easy to remember what sides of the right triangle are equal to sine, cosine, or tangent, by memorizing the word soh-cah-toa see below under mnemonics .

the reciprocals of these functions are named the cosecant csc or cosec , secant sec , and cotangent cot , respectively csc a 1 sin a hypotenuse opposite c a , displaystyle csc a frac 1 sin a frac textrm hypotenuse textrm opposite frac c a , sec a 1 cos a hypotenuse adjacent c b , displaystyle sec a frac 1 cos a frac textrm hypotenuse textrm adjacent frac c b , cot a 1 tan a adjacent opposite cos a sin a b a .

displaystyle cot a frac 1 tan a frac textrm adjacent textrm opposite frac cos a sin a frac b a .

the inverse functions are called the arcsine, arccosine, and arctangent, respectively.

there are arithmetic relations between these functions, which are known as trigonometric identities.

the cosine, cotangent, and cosecant are so named because they are respectively the sine, tangent, and secant of the complementary angle abbreviated to "co-".

with these functions, one can answer virtually all questions about arbitrary triangles by using the law of sines and the law of cosines.

these laws can be used to compute the remaining angles and sides of any triangle as soon as two sides and their included angle or two angles and a side or three sides are known.

these laws are useful in all branches of geometry, since every polygon may be described as a finite combination of triangles.

extending the definitions the above definitions only apply to angles between 0 and 90 degrees 0 and 2 radians .

using the unit circle, one can extend them to all positive and negative arguments see trigonometric function .

the trigonometric functions are periodic, with a period of 360 degrees or radians.

that means their values repeat at those intervals.

the tangent and cotangent functions also have a shorter period, of 180 degrees or radians.

the trigonometric functions can be defined in other ways besides the geometrical definitions above, using tools from calculus and infinite series.

with these definitions the trigonometric functions can be defined for complex numbers.

the complex exponential function is particularly useful.

e x i y e x cos y i sin y .

displaystyle e x iy e x cos y i sin y .

see euler's and de moivre's formulas.

mnemonics a common use of mnemonics is to remember facts and relationships in trigonometry.

for example, the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios in a right triangle can be remembered by representing them and their corresponding sides as strings of letters.

for instance, a mnemonic is soh-cah-toa sine opposite hypotenuse cosine adjacent hypotenuse tangent opposite adjacent one way to remember the letters is to sound them out phonetically i.e., soh-cah-toa, which is pronounced 'so- -toe-uh' .

another method is to expand the letters into a sentence, such as "some old hippie caught another hippie trippin' on acid".

calculating trigonometric functions trigonometric functions were among the earliest uses for mathematical tables.

such tables were incorporated into mathematics textbooks and students were taught to look up values and how to interpolate between the values listed to get higher accuracy.

slide rules had special scales for trigonometric functions.

today, scientific calculators have buttons for calculating the main trigonometric functions sin, cos, tan, and sometimes cis and their inverses .

most allow a choice of angle measurement methods degrees, radians, and sometimes gradians.

most computer programming languages provide function libraries that include the trigonometric functions.

the floating point unit hardware incorporated into the microprocessor chips used in most personal computers has built-in instructions for calculating trigonometric functions.

applications there is an enormous number of uses of trigonometry and trigonometric functions.

for instance, the technique of triangulation is used in astronomy to measure the distance to nearby stars, in geography to measure distances between landmarks, and in satellite navigation systems.

the sine and cosine functions are fundamental to the theory of periodic functions, such as those that describe sound and light waves.

fields that use trigonometry or trigonometric functions include astronomy especially for locating apparent positions of celestial objects, in which spherical trigonometry is essential and hence navigation on the oceans, in aircraft, and in space , music theory, audio synthesis, acoustics, optics, electronics, biology, medical imaging cat scans and ultrasound , pharmacy, chemistry, number theory and hence cryptology , seismology, meteorology, oceanography, many physical sciences, land surveying and geodesy, architecture, image compression, phonetics, economics, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, computer graphics, cartography, crystallography and game development.

pythagorean identities the following identities are related to the pythagorean theorem and hold for any value sin 2 a cos 2 a 1 displaystyle sin 2 a cos 2 a 1 tan 2 a 1 sec 2 a displaystyle tan 2 a 1 sec 2 a cot 2 a 1 csc 2 a displaystyle cot 2 a 1 csc 2 a angle transformation formulae sin a b sin a cos b cos a sin b displaystyle sin a pm b sin a cos b pm cos a sin b cos a b cos a cos b sin a sin b displaystyle cos a pm b cos a cos b mp sin a sin b tan a b tan a tan b 1 tan a tan b displaystyle tan a pm b frac tan a pm tan b 1 mp tan a tan b cot a b cot a cot b 1 cot b cot a displaystyle cot a pm b frac cot a cot b mp 1 cot b pm cot a common formulae certain equations involving trigonometric functions are true for all angles and are known as trigonometric identities.

some identities equate an expression to a different expression involving the same angles.

these are listed in list of trigonometric identities.

triangle identities that relate the sides and angles of a given triangle are listed below.

in the following identities, a, b and c are the angles of a triangle and a, b and c are the lengths of sides of the triangle opposite the respective angles as shown in the diagram .

law of sines the law of sines also known as the "sine rule" for an arbitrary triangle states a sin a b sin b c sin c 2 r a b c 2 , displaystyle frac a sin a frac b sin b frac c sin c 2r frac abc 2 delta , where displaystyle delta is the area of the triangle and r is the radius of the circumscribed circle of the triangle r a b c a b c a b c a b c b c a .

displaystyle r frac abc sqrt a b c a-b c a b-c b c-a .

another law involving sines can be used to calculate the area of a triangle.

given two sides a and b and the angle between the sides c, the area of the triangle is given by half the product of the lengths of two sides and the sine of the angle between the two sides area 1 2 a b sin c .

displaystyle mbox area delta frac 1 2 ab sin c. law of cosines the law of cosines known as the cosine formula, or the "cos rule" is an extension of the pythagorean theorem to arbitrary triangles c 2 a 2 b 2 2 a b cos c , displaystyle c 2 a 2 b 2 -2ab cos c, , or equivalently cos c a 2 b 2 c 2 2 a b .

displaystyle cos c frac a 2 b 2 -c 2 2ab .

, the law of cosines may be used to prove heron's formula, which is another method that may be used to calculate the area of a triangle.

this formula states that if a triangle has sides of lengths a, b, and c, and if the semiperimeter is s 1 2 a b c , displaystyle s frac 1 2 a b c , then the area of the triangle is area s s a s b s c a b c 4 r displaystyle mbox area delta sqrt s s-a s-b s-c frac abc 4r , where r is the radius of the circumcircle of the triangle.

law of tangents the law of tangents a b a b tan tan displaystyle frac a-b a b frac tan left tfrac 1 2 a-b right tan left tfrac 1 2 a b right euler's formula euler's formula, which states that e i x cos x i sin x displaystyle e ix cos x i sin x , produces the following analytical identities for sine, cosine, and tangent in terms of e and the imaginary unit i sin x e i x e i x 2 i , cos x e i x e i x 2 , tan x i e i x e i x e i x e i x .

displaystyle sin x frac e ix -e -ix 2i , qquad cos x frac e ix e -ix 2 , qquad tan x frac i e -ix -e ix e ix e -ix .

see also references bibliography boyer, carl b.

1991.

a history of mathematics second ed.

john wiley & sons, inc. isbn 0-471-54397-7.

hazewinkel, michiel, ed.

2001 , "trigonometric functions", encyclopedia of mathematics, springer, isbn 978-1-55608-010-4 christopher m. linton 2004 .

from eudoxus to einstein a history of mathematical astronomy .

cambridge university press.

weisstein, eric w. "trigonometric addition formulas".

mathworld.

external links khan academy trigonometry, free online micro lectures trigonometry by alfred monroe kenyon and louis ingold, the macmillan company, 1914.

in images, full text presented.

benjamin banneker's trigonometry puzzle at convergence dave's short course in trigonometry by david joyce of clark university trigonometry, by michael corral, covers elementary trigonometry, distributed under gnu free documentation license amritsar pronunciation punjabi punjabi pronunciation , historically also known as and colloquially as ambarsar, is a city in north-western india which is the administrative headquarters of the amritsar district - located in the majha region of the indian state of punjab.

according to the 2011 census, the population of amritsar was 1,132,761.

the city is situated 217 km 135 mi northwest of state capital chandigarh.

it is near pakistan, with the wagah border being only 28 km 17.4 mi away.

the nearest city is lahore, the second largest city in pakistan, located 50 km 31.1 mi to the west.

hinduism and sikhism are the main religions of amritsar city, practised by 49.4% and 48% of the total population, respectively.

amritsar is home to the harmandir sahib commonly known as the golden temple , the spiritual and cultural centre for the sikh religion.

this important sikh shrine attracts more visitors than the taj mahal with more than 100,000 visitors on weekdays alone and is the most popular destination for non-resident indians nri in the whole of india.

the city also houses the akal takht, the highest seat of earthly authority of the khalsa, and the committee responsible for the upkeep of gurdwaras.

the ramtirth temple situated at amritsar is believed to be the ashram site of maharishi valmiki, the writer of ramayana.

according to the hindu mythology, goddess sita gave birth to lava and kusha, sons of lord rama at ramtirth ashram.

large number of people visit ramtirth temple at annual fair.

nearby cities to amritsar, lahore and kasoor were said to be founded by lava and kusha, respectively.

during ashvamedha yagna by lord rama, lava and kush captured the ritual horse and tied lord hanuman to a tree near to today's durgiana temple.

during navratra festivities it is considered to be auspicious by hindu population of the city to visit that temple.

the main commercial activities of amritsar include tourism, carpets and fabrics, farm produce, handicrafts, service trades, and light engineering.

the city is known for its rich cuisine, and culture, and for the jallianwala bagh massacre in 1919 under british rule.

amritsar is home to central khalsa orphanage, which was once home to udham singh, a prominent figure in the indian independence movement.

gandhi ground is the main sports complex in the city which is home to the amritsar games association, aga .

amritsar has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for hriday - heritage city development and augmentation yojana scheme of government of india.

history amritsar is one of the largest cities of the punjab state in india.

the city origin lies in the village of tung, and was named after the lake founded by the fourth sikh guru ram das in 1574 on land bought by him for 700 rupees from the owners of the village of tung.

earlier, guru ram das had begun building santokhsar sarovar, near the village of sultanwind in 1564 according to one source in 1570 .

it could not be completed before 1588.

in 1574, guru ram das built his residence and moved to this place.

at that time, it was known as guru da chakk.

later, it came to be known as chakk ram das.

amritsar's central walled city has narrow streets mostly developed in the 17th and 18th century.

the city is a peculiar example of an introverted planning system with unique areas called katras.

the katras are self-styled residential units that provided unique defence system during attacks on the city.

jallianwala bagh massacre the jallianwala bagh massacre, involving the killing of hundreds of indian civilians on the orders of a senior british military officer, reginald edward harry dyer, took place on 13 april 1919 in the heart of amritsar, the holiest city of the sikhs, on a day sacred to them as the birth anniversary of the khalsa vaisakhi day .

in the punjab, during world war i , there was considerable unrest particularly among the sikhs, first on account of the demolition of a boundary wall of gurdwara rakab ganj at new delhi and later because of the activities and trials of the ghadarites, almost all of whom were sikhs.

in india as a whole, too, there had been a spurt in political activity mainly owing to the emergence of two leaders mahatma gandhi who after a period of struggle against the british in south africa, had returned to india in january 1915, and annie besant , head of the theosophical society of india, who on 11 april 1916 established the home rule league with autonomy for india as its goal.

in december 1916, the indian national congress, at its annual session held at lucknow, passed a resolution asking the king to issue a proclamation announcing that it is the "aim and intention of british policy to confer self-government on india at an early date".

on 10 april 1919, satya pal and saifuddin kitchlew, two popular proponents of the satyagraha movement led by gandhi, were called to the deputy commissioner's residence, arrested and sent off by car to dharamsetla, a hill town, now in himachal pradesh.

this led to a general strike in amritsar.

excited groups of citizens soon merged into a crowd of about 50,000 marching on to protest to the deputy commissioner against the arrest of the two leaders.

the crowd, however, was stopped and fired upon near the railway foot-bridge.

according to the official version, the number of those killed was 12 and of those wounded between 20 and 30.

evidence before an inquiry of the indian national congress put the number of the dead between 20 and 30.

three days later, on 13 april, the traditional festival of baisakhi, thousands of sikhs, muslims and hindus gathered in the jallianwala bagh.

an hour after the meeting began as scheduled at 16 30, dyer arrived with a group of sixty-five gurkha and twenty-five baluchi soldiers.

without warning the crowd to disperse, dyer blocked the main exits and ordered his troops to begin shooting toward the densest sections of the crowd.

firing continued for approximately ten minutes.

a british inquiry into the massacre placed the death toll at 379.

the indian national congress determined that approximately 1,000 people were killed.

partition of 1947 partition of british india into india and pakistan had a most profound effect on the demographics, economics, culture, political and social structures of amritsar.

the state of punjab was divided between india and pakistan and amritsar became a border city, often on the front lines of india-pakistan wars.

prior to partition, the muslim league wanted to incorporate amritsar into pakistan because of the amritsar's proximity to lahore a distance of 30 miles and a nearly 50% muslim population, but the city became part of india.

the indian national congress had similar aims of incorporating lahore into india as lahore was the cultural, economic, and political capital of undivided punjab and hindus and sikhs constituted nearly 50% of the population, but lahore became a part of pakistan.

amritsar and lahore experienced some of the worst communal riots during the partition of india.

muslim residents of amritsar left the city en-masse leaving their homes and property behind because of violent anti-muslim riots in amritsar.

similar scenes of communal carnage against hindus and sikhs were witnessed in lahore and led to their mass evacuation.

important muslim dominated villages in amritsar district prior to partition include sultanpur, kala afgana, abdul kalan, rasheed bal, lahorie, shahpur, shahkot, alipur, aliwal, allahbad, fatehbad, chak, guza chak, jattan, cheema.

operation blue star operation blue star 6 june 1984 was an indian military operation ordered by indira gandhi, then prime minister of india to curb and remove sikh militants from the golden temple in amritsar.

the operation was carried out by indian army troops with tanks and armoured vehicles.

militarily successful, the operation aroused immense controversy, and the government's justification for the timing and style of the attack are hotly debated.

operation blue star was included in the top 10 political disgraces by india today magazine.

official reports put the number of deaths among the indian army at 83, with 493 civilians and sikh militants killed.

in addition, the cbi is considered responsible for seizing historical artefacts and manuscripts in the sikh reference library before burning it down.

four months after the operation, on 31 october 1984, indira gandhi was assassinated by two of her sikh bodyguards in what is viewed as an act of vengeance.

following her assassination, more than 3,000 sikhs were killed in anti-sikh pogroms.

within the sikh community itself, operation blue star has taken on considerable historical significance.

geography and climate amritsar is located at 31.

74. h, second only in india to the bhopal shatabdi express.

it will travel the 445 km between the two cities in 2.5 hours compared to the current time of 5 hours .

companies from japan, china, uk and canada have expressed an interest in the project.

the contract for building the line were to be awarded at the end of may 2008.

other lines of this kind have proposed in mumbai, ahmedabad, pune, and kolkata.

amritsar railway station has 6 platforms namely 1a.

and there are proposals for expanding it to 10 to 12 platforms.

important trains amritsar shatabdi express new delhi amritsar swarna shatabdi express amritsar haridwar jan shatabdi express road amritsar is located on the historic grand trunk road g.t road , also known as national highway 1, and therefore very well connected to the road network.

daily bus services run to and from ambala, patiala, delhi, chandigarh and jammu.

rs 450,000,000 is being spent to expand the amritsar-jalandhar stretch of g.t.

road to four lanes.

in 2010, elevated road with four lanes connected to the national highway for better access to the golden temple has been started.

for transportation within amritsar city, rickshaws, auto rickshaws, taxis and buses are available.

inter-city buses are available from amritsar to chandigarh, delhi, shimla, jalandhar and ludhiana.

amritsar brts the government of punjab pledged rs.

580 crore 100 million dollars for the amritsar brts for the city.

it is hoped that amritsar brts will help relieve traffic congestion and improve air quality.

the amritsar brts or amritsar metrobus has commenced operations and is open to the public.

city bus service is also present in the city.

amritsar is also connected with lahore, pakistan via the old grand trunk road.

tourist places in amritsar harmandir sahib gobindgarh fort durgiana temple jallianwala bagh wagah border mata lal devi temple model town temple sadda pind heritage village punjab state war heroes memorial urban haat food street anand garden harike wetland educational institutions indian institute of management, amritsar amritsar college of engineering and technology bbk dav college for women, amritsar delhi public school, amritsar global institute, amritsar government medical college, amritsar guru nanak dev university dav international school, amritsar khalsa college, amritsar st. francis school, amritsar dav college, amritsar holy heart presidency school police dav public school, amritsar notable residents twin towns cities waitakere city, auckland, new zealand 2009 bakersfield, california, united states 2011 sandwell, england gallery see also amritsar district tarn taran district majha sikhism references external links official website of district of amritsar official website of amritsar municipal corporation amritsar hriday city maharaja ranjit singh panorama places to visit in amritsar wheat triticum spp., most commonly t. aestivum is a cereal grain botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis , originally from the levant region but now cultivated worldwide.

in 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize 1.03 billion tonnes , with more than rice 499 million tonnes .

since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st century.

this grain is grown on more land area than any other commercial food 220.4 million hectares, 2014 .

world trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined.

globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods.

the archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the fertile crescent around 9600 bce.

when eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber, and is associated with lower risk of several diseases, including coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer and type 2 diabetes.

in a small part of the general population, gluten the major part of wheat protein can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia and dermatitis herpetiformis.

origin cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, as mutant forms 'sports' of wheat were preferentially chosen by farmers.

in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds inside the spikelets remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting.

in wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the spikelets.

selection for these traits by farmers might not have been deliberately intended, but simply have occurred because these traits made gathering the seeds easier nevertheless such 'incidental' selection was an important part of crop domestication.

as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plant's natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild.

cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the fertile crescent after about 8000 bce.

jared diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the fertile crescent sometime before 8800 bce.

archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 bce.

genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the karacadag mountains in southeastern turkey.

dated archeological remains of einkorn wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at abu hureyra in syria, suggest the domestication of einkorn near the karacadag mountain range.

with the anomalous exception of two grains from iraq ed-dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at abu hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years bce.

remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the karacadag range have been dated to between 8600 at cayonu and 8400 bce abu hureyra , that is, in the neolithic period.

with the exception of iraq ed-dubb, the earliest carbon-14 dated remains of domesticated emmer wheat were found in the earliest levels of tell aswad, in the damascus basin, near mount hermon in syria.

these remains were dated by willem van zeist and his assistant johanna bakker-heeres to 8800 bce.

they also concluded that the settlers of tell aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, but brought the domesticated grains with them from an as yet unidentified location elsewhere.

the cultivation of emmer reached greece, cyprus and india by 6500 bce, egypt shortly after 6000 bce, and germany and spain by 5000 bce.

"the early egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large-scale food production industries."

by 3000 bce, wheat had reached the british isles and scandinavia.

a millennium later it reached china.

the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through dna analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 bce, recovered from .

the first identifiable bread wheat triticum aestivum with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using dna analysis in samples from a granary dating to approximately 1350 bce at assiros in macedonia.

from asia, wheat continued to spread throughout europe.

in the british isles, wheat straw thatch was used for roofing in the bronze age, and was in common use until the late 19th century.

farming techniques technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth, and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop.

agricultural cultivation using horse collar leveraged plows at about 3000 bce was one of the first innovations that increased productivity.

much later, when the use of seed drills replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century, another great increase in productivity occurred.

yields of pure wheat per unit area increased as methods of crop rotation were applied to long cultivated land, and the use of fertilizers became widespread.

improved agricultural husbandry has more recently included threshing machines and reaping machines the 'combine harvester' , tractor-drawn cultivators and planters, and better varieties see green revolution and norin 10 wheat .

great expansion of wheat production occurred as new arable land was farmed in the americas and australia in the 19th and 20th centuries.

genetics wheat genetics is more complicated than that of most other domesticated species.

some wheat species are diploid, with two sets of chromosomes, but many are stable polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes tetraploid or six hexaploid .

einkorn wheat t. monococcum is diploid aa, two complements of seven chromosomes, 2n 14 .

most tetraploid wheats e.g.

emmer and durum wheat are derived from wild emmer, t. dicoccoides.

wild emmer is itself the result of a hybridization between two diploid wild grasses, t. urartu and a wild goatgrass such as aegilops searsii or ae.

speltoides.

the unknown grass has never been identified among now surviving wild grasses, but the closest living relative is aegilops speltoides.

the hybridization that formed wild emmer aabb occurred in the wild, long before domestication, and was driven by natural selection.

hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers' fields.

either domesticated emmer or durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass aegilops tauschii to make the hexaploid wheats, spelt wheat and bread wheat.

these have three sets of paired chromosomes, three times as many as in diploid wheat.

the presence of certain versions of wheat genes has been important for crop yields.

apart from mutant versions of genes selected in antiquity during domestication, there has been more recent deliberate selection of alleles that affect growth characteristics.

genes for the 'dwarfing' trait, first used by japanese wheat breeders to produce short-stalked wheat, have had a huge effect on wheat yields worldwide, and were major factors in the success of the green revolution in mexico and asia, an initiative led by norman borlaug.

dwarfing genes enable the carbon that is fixed in the plant during photosynthesis to be diverted towards seed production, and they also help prevent the problem of lodging.

'lodging' occurs when an ear stalk falls over in the wind and rots on the ground, and heavy nitrogenous fertilization of wheat makes the grass grow taller and become more susceptible to this problem.

by 1997, 81% of the developing world's wheat area was planted to semi-dwarf wheats, giving both increased yields and better response to nitrogenous fertilizer.

wild grasses in the genus triticum and related genera, and grasses such as rye have been a source of many disease-resistance traits for cultivated wheat breeding since the 1930s.

heterosis, or hybrid vigor as in the familiar f1 hybrids of maize , occurs in common hexaploid wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with maize because wheat flowers are perfect and normally self-pollinate.

commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents these chemicals selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems.

hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in europe particularly france , the united states and south africa.

f1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with the standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny many ten or more generations before release selections are identified to be released as a variety or cultivar.

synthetic hexaploids made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor aegilops tauschii and various durum wheats are now being deployed, and these increase the genetic diversity of cultivated wheats.

stomata or leaf pores are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and water vapor losses from the leaf due to water transpiration.

basic physiological investigation of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods that are used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water-use efficiency.

these varieties can improve crop productivity in rain-fed dry-land wheat farms.

in 2010, a team of uk scientists funded by bbsrc announced they had decoded the wheat genome for the first time 95% of the genome of a variety of wheat known as chinese spring line 42 .

this genome was released in a basic format for scientists and plant breeders to use but was not a fully annotated sequence which was reported in some of the media.

on 29 november 2012, an essentially complete gene set of bread wheat was published.

random shotgun libraries of total dna and cdna from the t. aestivum cv.

chinese spring cs42 were sequenced in roche 454 pyrosequencer using gs flx titanium and gs flx platforms to generate 85 gb of sequence 220 million reads , equivalent to 5x genome coverage and identified between 94,000 and 96,000 genes.

this sequence data provides direct access to about 96,000 genes, relying on orthologous gene sets from other cereals.

and represents an essential step towards a systematic understanding of biology and engineering the cereal crop for valuable traits.

its implications in cereal genetics and breeding includes the examination of genome variation, association mapping using natural populations, performing wide crosses and alien introgression, studying the expression and nucleotide polymorphism in transcriptomes, analyzing population genetics and evolutionary biology, and studying the epigenetic modifications.

moreover, the availability of large-scale genetic markers generated through ngs technology will facilitate trait mapping and make marker-assisted breeding much feasible.

moreover, the data not only facilitate in deciphering the complex phenomena such as heterosis and epigenetics, it may also enable breeders to predict which fragment of a chromosome is derived from which parent in the progeny line, thereby recognizing crossover events occurring in every progeny line and inserting markers on genetic and physical maps without ambiguity.

in due course, this will assist in introducing specific chromosomal segments from one cultivar to another.

besides, the researchers had identified diverse classes of genes participating in energy production, metabolism and growth that were probably linked with crop yield, which can now be utilized for the development of transgenic wheat.

thus whole genome sequence of wheat and the availability of thousands of snps will inevitably permit the breeders to stride towards identifying novel traits, providing biological knowledge and empowering biodiversity-based breeding.

plant breeding in traditional agricultural systems wheat populations often consist of landraces, informal farmer-maintained populations that often maintain high levels of morphological diversity.

although landraces of wheat are no longer grown in europe and north america, they continue to be important elsewhere.

the origins of formal wheat breeding lie in the nineteenth century, when single line varieties were created through selection of seed from a single plant noted to have desired properties.

modern wheat breeding developed in the first years of the twentieth century and was closely linked to the development of mendelian genetics.

the standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars is by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny.

selections are identified shown to have the genes responsible for the varietal differences ten or more generations before release as a variety or cultivar.

the major breeding objectives include high grain yield, good quality, disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses, including mineral, moisture and heat tolerance.

the major diseases in temperate environments include the following, arranged in a rough order of their significance from cooler to warmer climates eyespot, stagonospora nodorum blotch also known as glume blotch , yellow or stripe rust, powdery mildew, septoria tritici blotch sometimes known as leaf blotch , brown or leaf rust, fusarium head blight, tan spot and stem rust.

in tropical areas, spot blotch also known as helminthosporium leaf blight is also important.

wheat has also been the subject of mutation breeding, with the use of gamma, x-rays, ultraviolet light, and sometimes harsh chemicals.

the varieties of wheat created through these methods are in the hundreds going as far back as 1960 , more of them being created in higher populated countries such as china.

bread wheat with high grain iron and zinc content was developed through gamma radiation breeding.

modern bread wheat varieties have been cross-bred to contain greater amounts of gluten, which affords significant advantages for improving the quality of breads and pastas from a functional point of view.

gluten is appreciated for its unique viscoelastic properties.

it gives elasticity to dough and is responsible for gas-retaining properties.

hybrid wheat because wheat self-pollinates, creating hybrid varieties is extremely labor-intensive the high cost of hybrid wheat seed relative to its moderate benefits have kept farmers from adopting them widely despite nearly 90 years of effort.

f1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with wheat cultivars deriving from standard plant breeding.

heterosis or hybrid vigor as in the familiar f1 hybrids of maize occurs in common hexaploid wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with maize because wheat flowers are perfect in the botanical sense, meaning they have both male and female parts, and normally self-pollinate.

commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents, plant growth regulators that selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems.

hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in europe particularly france , the united states and south africa.

hulled versus free-threshing wheat the four wild species of wheat, along with the domesticated varieties einkorn, emmer and spelt, have hulls.

this more primitive morphology in evolutionary terms consists of toughened glumes that tightly enclose the grains, and in domesticated wheats a semi-brittle rachis that breaks easily on threshing.

the result is that when threshed, the wheat ear breaks up into spikelets.

to obtain the grain, further processing, such as milling or pounding, is needed to remove the hulls or husks.

in contrast, in free-threshing or naked forms such as durum wheat and common wheat, the glumes are fragile and the rachis tough.

on threshing, the chaff breaks up, releasing the grains.

hulled wheats are often stored as spikelets because the toughened glumes give good protection against pests of stored grain.

naming there are many botanical classification systems used for wheat species, discussed in a separate article on wheat taxonomy.

the name of a wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another.

within a species, wheat cultivars are further classified by wheat breeders and farmers in terms of growing season, such as winter wheat vs. spring wheat.

protein content.

bread wheat protein content ranges from 10% in some soft wheats with high starch contents, to 15% in hard wheats.

the quality of the wheat protein gluten.

this protein can determine the suitability of a wheat to a particular dish.

a strong and elastic gluten present in bread wheats enables dough to trap carbon dioxide during leavening, but elastic gluten interferes with the rolling of pasta into thin sheets.

the gluten protein in durum wheats used for pasta is strong but not elastic.

grain color red, white or amber .

many wheat varieties are reddish-brown due to phenolic compounds present in the bran layer which are transformed to pigments by browning enzymes.

white wheats have a lower content of phenolics and browning enzymes, and are generally less astringent in taste than red wheats.

the yellowish color of durum wheat and semolina flour made from it is due to a carotenoid pigment called lutein, which can be oxidized to a colorless form by enzymes present in the grain.

major cultivated species of wheat hexaploid species common wheat or bread wheat t. aestivum a hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world.

spelt t. spelta another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities.

spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat t. aestivum , in which case its botanical name is considered to be t. aestivum ssp.

spelta.

tetraploid species durum t. durum the only tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat.

emmer t. dicoccon a tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.

khorasan t. turgidum ssp.

turanicum, also called t. turanicum is a tetraploid wheat species.

it is an ancient grain type khorasan refers to a historical region in modern-day afghanistan and the northeast of iran.

this grain is twice the size of modern-day wheat and is known for its rich nutty flavor.

diploid species einkorn t. monococcum a diploid species with wild and cultivated variants.

domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but never reached the same importance.

classes used in the united states the classes used in the united states are durum very hard, translucent, light-colored grain used to make semolina flour for pasta & bulghur high in protein, specifically, gluten protein.

hard red spring hard, brownish, high-protein wheat used for bread and hard baked goods.

bread flour and high-gluten flours are commonly made from hard red spring wheat.

it is primarily traded at the minneapolis grain exchange.

hard red winter hard, brownish, mellow high-protein wheat used for bread, hard baked goods and as an adjunct in other flours to increase protein in pastry flour for pie crusts.

some brands of unbleached all-purpose flours are commonly made from hard red winter wheat alone.

it is primarily traded on the kansas city board of trade.

one variety is known as "turkey red wheat", and was brought to kansas by mennonite immigrants from russia.

soft red winter soft, low-protein wheat used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits, and muffins.

cake flour, pastry flour, and some self-rising flours with baking powder and salt added, for example, are made from soft red winter wheat.

it is primarily traded on the chicago board of trade.

hard white hard, light-colored, opaque, chalky, medium-protein wheat planted in dry, temperate areas.

used for bread and brewing.

soft white soft, light-colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas.

used for pie crusts and pastry.

pastry flour, for example, is sometimes made from soft white winter wheat.

red wheats may need bleaching therefore, white wheats usually command higher prices than red wheats on the commodities market.

as a food raw wheat can be ground into flour or, using hard durum wheat only, can be ground into semolina germinated and dried creating malt crushed or cut into cracked wheat parboiled or steamed , dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats.

if the raw wheat is broken into parts at the mill, as is usually done, the outer husk or bran can be used several ways.

wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, muesli, pancakes, pies, pastries, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, boza a fermented beverage , and breakfast cereals.

in manufacturing wheat products, gluten is valuable to impart viscoelastic functional qualities in dough, enabling the preparation of diverse nutritious foods such as breads, noodles, and pasta that facilitate wheat consumption.

nutrition in 100 grams, wheat provides 327 calories and is a rich source 20% or more of the daily value, dv of multiple essential nutrients, such as protein, dietary fiber, manganese, phosphorus and niacin table .

several b vitamins and other dietary minerals are in significant content.

wheat is 13% water, 71% carbohydrates, and 1.5% fat.

its 13% protein content is comprised mostly of gluten as 75-80% of total wheat protein, which upon digestion, contributes amino acids for human nutrition.

ch.

choline ca calcium fe iron mg magnesium p phosphorus k potassium na sodium zn zinc cu copper mn manganese se selenium %dv % daily value i.e.

% of dri dietary reference intake note all nutrient values including protein and fiber are in %dv per 100 grams of the food item.

significant values are highlighted in light gray color and bold letters.

cooking reduction % maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for ovo-lacto-vegetables group q quality of protein in terms of completeness without adjusting for digestability.

100 g 3.5 oz of hard red winter wheat contain about 12.6 g 0.44 oz of protein, 1.5 g 0.053 oz of total fat, 71 g 2.5 oz of carbohydrate by difference , 12.2 g 0.43 oz of dietary fiber, and 3.2 mg 0.00011 oz of iron 17% of the daily requirement the same weight of hard red spring wheat contains about 15.4 g 0.54 oz of protein, 1.9 g 0.067 oz of total fat, 68 g 2.4 oz of carbohydrate by difference , 12.2 g 0.43 oz of dietary fiber, and 3.6 mg 0.00013 oz of iron 20% of the daily requirement .

worldwide consumption wheat is grown on more than 218,000,000 hectares 540,000,000 acres , larger than for any other crop.

world trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined.

with rice, wheat is the world's most favored staple food.

it is a major diet component because of the wheat plant's agronomic adaptability with the ability to grow from near arctic regions to equator, from sea level to plains of tibet, approximately 4,000 m 13,000 ft above sea level.

in addition to agronomic adaptability, wheat offers ease of grain storage and ease of converting grain into flour for making edible, palatable, interesting and satisfying foods.

wheat is the most important source of carbohydrate in a majority of countries.

the most common forms of wheat are white and red wheat.

however, other natural forms of wheat exist.

other commercially minor but nutritionally promising species of naturally evolved wheat species include black, yellow and blue wheat.

health effects consumed worldwide by billions of people, wheat is a significant food for human nutrition, particularly in the least developed countries where wheat products are primary foods.

when eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a healthy food source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber recommended for children and adults in several daily servings amounting to about one third of total food intake.

as a common component of breakfast cereals, whole wheat is associated with improved micronutrient intake and lower risk of several diseases.

its effects on gastrointestinal health, risk of obesity and cognition need further evaluation.

by supplying high dietary fiber content, whole wheat in the diet contributes toward lowering the risk of multiple diseases, including coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer and type 2 diabetes, with lower all-cause mortality.

manufacturers of foods containing wheat as a whole grain in specified amounts are allowed a health claim for marketing purposes in the united states, stating "low fat diets rich in fiber-containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types of cancer, a disease associated with many factors" and "diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain some types of dietary fiber, particularly soluble fiber, may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associated with many factors".

dietary fiber may also help people feel full and therefore help with a healthy weight.

further, wheat is a major source for natural and biofortified nutrient supplementation, including dietary fiber, protein and dietary minerals.

concerns in genetically susceptible people, gluten a major part of wheat protein can trigger coeliac disease.

coeliac disease affects about 1% of the general population in developed countries.

there is evidence that most cases remain undiagnosed and untreated.

the only known effective treatment is a strict lifelong gluten-free diet.

while coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to wheat proteins, it is not the same as a wheat allergy.

other diseases triggered by eating gluten are non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, estimated to affect 0.5% to 13% of the general population , gluten ataxia and dermatitis herpetiformis.

comparison with other staple foods the following table shows the nutrient content of wheat and other major staple foods in a raw form.

raw forms of these staples, however, are not edible and cannot be digested.

these must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption.

in sprouted or cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table.

in cooked form, the nutrition value for each staple depends on the cooking method for example baking, boiling, steaming, frying, etc.

commercial use harvested wheat grain that enters trade is classified according to grain properties for the purposes of the commodity markets.

wheat buyers use these to decide which wheat to buy, as each class has special uses, and producers use them to decide which classes of wheat will be most profitable to cultivate.

wheat is widely cultivated as a cash crop because it produces a good yield per unit area, grows well in a temperate climate even with a moderately short growing season, and yields a versatile, high-quality flour that is widely used in baking.

most breads are made with wheat flour, including many breads named for the other grains they contain, for example, most rye and oat breads.

the popularity of foods made from wheat flour creates a large demand for the grain, even in economies with significant food surpluses.

in recent years, low international wheat prices have often encouraged farmers in the united states to change to more profitable crops.

in 1998, the price at harvest of a 60 pounds 27 kg bushel was 2.68 per.

some information providers, following cbot practice, quote the wheat market in per ton denomination.

a usda report revealed that in 1998, average operating costs were 1.43 per bushel and total costs were 3.97 per bushel.

in that study, farm wheat yields averaged 41.7 bushels per acre 2.2435 metric ton hectare , and typical total wheat production value was 31,900 per farm, with total farm production value including other crops of 173,681 per farm, plus 17,402 in government payments.

there were significant profitability differences between low- and high-cost farms, mainly due to crop yield differences, location, and farm size.

production and consumption in 2016, global wheat production was 749 million tonnes.

wheat is the primary food staple in north africa and the middle east, and is growing in uses in asia.

unlike rice, wheat production is more widespread globally, though 47% of the world total in 2014 was produced by just four countries china, india, russia and the united states table .

historical factors in the 20th century, global wheat output expanded by about 5-fold, but until about 1955 most of this reflected increases in wheat crop area, with lesser about 20% increases in crop yields per unit area.

after 1955 however, there was a ten-fold increase in the rate of wheat yield improvement per year, and this became the major factor allowing global wheat production to increase.

thus technological innovation and scientific crop management with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, irrigation and wheat breeding were the main drivers of wheat output growth in the second half of the century.

there were some significant decreases in wheat crop area, for instance in north america.

better seed storage and germination ability and hence a smaller requirement to retain harvested crop for next year's seed is another 20th century technological innovation.

in medieval england, farmers saved one-quarter of their wheat harvest as seed for the next crop, leaving only three-quarters for food and feed consumption.

by 1999, the global average seed use of wheat was about 6% of output.

several factors are currently slowing the rate of global expansion of wheat production population growth rates are falling while wheat yields continue to rise, and the better economic profitability of other crops such as soybeans and maize, linked with investment in modern genetic technologies, has promoted shifts to other crops.

farming systems in 2014, the most productive crop yields for wheat were in ireland, producing 10 tonnes per hectare.

in addition to gaps in farming system technology and knowledge, some large wheat grain producing countries have significant losses after harvest at the farm and because of poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and farmers' inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers.

various studies in india, for example, have concluded that about 10% of total wheat production is lost at farm level, another 10% is lost because of poor storage and road networks, and additional amounts lost at the retail level.

in the punjab region of india and pakistan, as well as north china, irrigation has been a major contributor to increased grain output.

more widely over the last 40 years, a massive increase in fertilizer use together with the increased availability of semi-dwarf varieties in developing countries, has greatly increased yields per hectare.

in developing countries, use of mainly nitrogenous fertilizer increased 25-fold in this period.

however, farming systems rely on much more than fertilizer and breeding to improve productivity.

a good illustration of this is australian wheat growing in the southern winter cropping zone, where, despite low rainfall 300 mm , wheat cropping is successful even with relatively little use of nitrogenous fertilizer.

this is achieved by 'rotation cropping' traditionally called the ley system with leguminous pastures and, in the last decade, including a canola crop in the rotations has boosted wheat yields by a further 25%.

in these low rainfall areas, better use of available soil-water and better control of soil erosion is achieved by retaining the stubble after harvesting and by minimizing tillage.

geographical variation there are substantial differences in wheat farming, trading, policy, sector growth, and wheat uses in different regions of the world.

the largest exporters of wheat in 2013 were, in order of exported quantities united states 33.2 million tonnes , canada 19.8 million tonnes , france 19.6 million tonnes , australia 18 million tonnes , and the russian federation 13.8 million tonnes .

the largest importers of wheat in 2013 were, in order of imported quantities egypt 10.3 million tonnes , brazil 7.3 million tonnes , indonesia 6.7 million tonnes , algeria 6.3 million tonnes and japan 6.2 million tonnes .

in the rapidly developing countries of asia and africa, westernization of diets associated with increasing prosperity is leading to growth in per capita demand for wheat at the expense of the other food staples.

in the past, there has been significant governmental intervention in wheat markets, such as price supports in the us and farm payments in the eu.

in the eu, these subsidies have encouraged heavy use of fertilizer inputs with resulting high crop yields.

in australia and argentina, direct government subsidies are much lower.

most productive the average annual world farm yield for wheat in 2014 was 3.3 tonnes per hectare 330 grams per square meter .

ireland wheat farms were the most productive in 2014, with a nationwide average of 10.0 tonnes per hectare, followed by the netherlands 9.2 , and germany, new zealand and the united kingdom each with 8.6 .

futures contracts wheat futures are traded on the chicago board of trade, kansas city board of trade, and minneapolis grain exchange, and have delivery dates in march h , may k , july n , september u , and december z .

agronomy crop development wheat normally needs between 110 and 130 days between sowing and harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze .

optimal crop management requires that the farmer have a detailed understanding of each stage of development in the growing plants.

in particular, spring fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and growth regulators are typically applied only at specific stages of plant development.

for example, it is currently recommended that the second application of nitrogen is best done when the ear not visible at this stage is about 1 cm in size z31 on zadoks scale .

knowledge of stages is also important to identify periods of higher risk from the climate.

for example, pollen formation from the mother cell, and the stages between anthesis and maturity are susceptible to high temperatures, and this adverse effect is made worse by water stress.

farmers also benefit from knowing when the 'flag leaf' last leaf appears, as this leaf represents about 75% of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period, and so should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield.

several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the feekes and zadoks scales being the most widely used.

each scale is a standard system which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season.

diseases there are many wheat diseases, mainly caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses.

plant breeding to develop new disease-resistant varieties, and sound crop management practices are important for preventing disease.

fungicides, used to prevent the significant crop losses from fungal disease, can be a significant variable cost in wheat production.

estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant diseases vary between % in missouri.

a wide range of organisms infect wheat, of which the most important are viruses and fungi.

the main wheat-disease categories are seed-borne diseases these include seed-borne scab, seed-borne stagonospora previously known as septoria , common bunt stinking smut , and loose smut.

these are managed with fungicides.

leaf- and head- blight diseases powdery mildew, leaf rust, septoria tritici leaf blotch, stagonospora septoria nodorum leaf and glume blotch, and fusarium head scab.

crown and root rot diseases two of the more important of these are 'take-all' and cephalosporium stripe.

both of these diseases are soil borne.

stem rust diseases caused by basidiomycete fungi e.g.

ug99 viral diseases wheat spindle streak mosaic yellow mosaic and barley yellow dwarf are the two most common viral diseases.

control can be achieved by using resistant varieties.

pests wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some lepidoptera butterfly and moth species including the flame, rustic shoulder-knot, setaceous hebrew character and turnip moth.

early in the season, many species of birds, including the long-tailed widowbird, and rodents feed upon wheat crops.

these animals can cause significant damage to a crop by digging up and eating newly planted seeds or young plants.

they can also damage the crop late in the season by eating the grain from the mature spike.

recent post-harvest losses in cereals amount to billions of dollars per year in the united states alone, and damage to wheat by various borers, beetles and weevils is no exception.

rodents can also cause major losses during storage, and in major grain growing regions, field mice numbers can sometimes build up explosively to plague proportions because of the ready availability of food.

to reduce the amount of wheat lost to post-harvest pests, agricultural research service scientists have developed an "insect-o-graph," which can detect insects in wheat that are not visible to the naked eye.

the device uses electrical signals to detect the insects as the wheat is being milled.

the new technology is so precise that it can detect 5-10 infested seeds out of 300,000 good ones.

tracking insect infestations in stored grain is critical for food safety as well as for the marketing value of the crop.

see also bran chaff deficit irrigation husk list of cereals taxonomy of wheat wheatberry wheat germ oil wheat production in the united states wheat middlings whole wheat flour references this article incorporates material from the citizendium article "wheat", which is licensed under the creative commons attribution-sharealike 3.0 unported license but not under the gfdl.

further reading bonjean, a.p., and w.j.

angus editors .

the world wheat book a history of wheat breeding.

lavoisier publ., paris.

1131 pp.

2001 .

isbn 2-7430-0402-9 christen, olaf, ed.

2009 , winterweizen.

das handbuch profis in german , dlg-verlags-gmbh, isbn 978-3-7690-0719-0 garnsey peter, grain for rome, in garnsey p., hopkins k., whittaker c. r. editors , trade in the ancient economy, chatto & windus, london 1983 head l., atchison j., and gates a. ingrained a human bio-geography of wheat.

ashgate publ., burlington.

246 pp.

2012 .

isbn 978-1-4094-3787-1 jasny naum, the daily bread of ancient greeks and romans, ex officina templi, brugis 1950 jasny naum, the wheats of classical antiquity, j. hopkins press, baltimore 1944 heiser charles b., seed to civilisation.

the story of food, harvard university press, 1990 harlan jack r., crops and man, american society of agronomy, madison 1975 padulosi, s. hammer, k. heller, j., eds.

1996 .

hulled wheats.

promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops.

4. international plant genetic resources institute, rome, italy.

saltini antonio, i semi della .

grano, riso e mais nella storia delle umane, prefazione di luigi brea, avenue media, bologna 1996 sauer jonathan d., geography of crop plants.

a select roster, crc press, boca raton external links triticum species at purdue university triticum aestivum facts, developmental stages, and inflorescence at geochembio misl generally refers to the sovereign states of the sikh confederacy that rose during the 18th century in the punjab region of the indian subcontinent.

the misls formed a commonwealth that was described by antoine polier as an "aristocratic republic".

although the misls were unequal in strength, and each misl attempted to expand its territory and access to resources at the expense of others, they acted in unison in relation to other states.

the misls held biannual meetings of their legislature, the sarbat khalsa in amritsar.

history in order to withstand the persecution of shah jahan and other mughal rulers, several of the later sikh gurus established military forces and fought the mughal empire and hindu hill chiefs in the early and middle mughal-sikh wars.

banda singh bahadur continued sikh resistance to the mughal empire until his defeat at the battle of gurdas nangal.

for several years sikhs found refuge in the jungles and the himalayan foothills until they organized themselves into military bands known as jathas.

list of misls military each misl was made up of members of soldiers, whose loyalty was given to the misl's leader.

a misl could be composed of a few hundred to tens of thousands soldiers.

every soldier was free to join any misl he chose and free to cancel his membership of the misl to whom he belonged.

he could, if he wanted, cancel his membership of his old misl and join another.

the barons would allow their armies to combine or coordinate their defences together against a hostile force if ordered by the misldar supreme commander.

these orders were only issued in military matters affecting the whole sikh community.

these orders would normally be related to defense against external threats, such as afghan military attacks.

the profits of a fighting action were divided by the misls to individuals based on the service rendered after the conflict using the sardari system.

the sikh confederacy is a description of the political structure, of how all the barons' kingdoms interacted with each other politically together in punjab.

although misls varied in strength, the use of primarily light cavalry with a smaller amount heavy cavalry was uniform throughout all of the sikh misls.

cavalrymen in a misl were required to supply their own horses and equipment.

a standard cavalryman was armed with a spear, matchlock, and scimitar.

how the armies of the sikh misls received payment varied with the leadership of each misl.

the most prevalent system of payment was the 'fasalandari' system soldiers would receive payment every six months at the end of a harvest.

cavalry tactics fauja singh considers the sikh misls to be guerrilla armies, although he notes that the sikh misls generally had greater numbers and a larger number of artillery pieces than a guerrilla army would.

the misls were primarily cavalry based armies and employed less artillery than mughal or maratha armies.

the misls adapted their tactics to their strength in cavalry and weakness in artillery and avoided pitched battles.

misls organized their armies around bodies of horsemen and their units fought battles in a series of skirmishes, a tactic which gave them an advantage over fighting pitched battles.

bodies of cavalry would attack a position, retreat, reload their muskets, and return to attack it again.

the tactics used by misl field armies include flanking an enemy, obstructing river passages, cutting off a unit from its supplies, intercepting messengers, attacking isolated units like foraging parties, employing hit-and-run tactics, overrunning camps, and attacking baggage trains.

to fight large armies the misl would completely evacuate the areas in front of the enemy's marching route but follow in the rear of the opposition and reconquer areas the enemy had just captured, threaten agents of the enemy with retribution, and sweep over the countryside in the wake of the enemy's withdrawal.

the running skirmish was a tactic unique to the sikh cavalrymen which was notable for its effectiveness and the high degree of skill required to execute it.

george thomas and george forster, contemporary writers who witnessed it described its use separately in their accounts of the military of the sikhs.

george forster noted "a party from forty to fifty, advance in a quick pace to a distance of carbine shot from the enemy and then, that the fire may be given with the greatest certainty, the horses are drawn up and their pieces discharged, when speedily, retiring about a 100 paces, they load and repeat the same mode of annoying the enemy.

their horses have been so expertly trained to a performance of this operation that on receiving a stroke of hand, they stop from a full canter."

administration the sikh misls had four different classes of administrative divisions.

the patadari, misaldari, tabadari, and jagirdari were the different systems of land tenure used by the misls, and land granted by the misl left the responsibility of establishing law and order to the owner of the land.

the land under the direct administration of the chief of the misl was known as the sardari and the tabadari and jagirdari systems used land directly given by the chief from the sardari.

the patadari and misaldari systems formed the basis of a misl, while tabadari and jagirdari lands would only be created after large acquisitions of land.

the type of system that was used in an area depended on the importance of the chief sardar of the area to the rest of the misl.

the patadari system affected newly annexed territories and was the original method used by the misls in administrating land.

the patadari system relied on the cooperation of surkundas, the rank of a leader of a small party of cavalrymen.

the chief of the misl would take his her portion and divide the other parcels among his sardars proportional to the number of cavalrymen they had contributed to the misl.

the sardars would then divide their parcels among their surkundas, and then the surkundas subdivided the land they received among their individual cavalrymen.

the surkundas receiving parcels of land with settlements were required to fortify them and establish fines and laws for their zamindars and ryots.

parcels of land in the patadari system could not be sold, but could be given to relatives in an inheritance.

the soldiers who received parcels from the patadari system held their land in complete freedom.

the misaldari system applied to sardars with a small number of cavalrymen as well as independent bodies of cavalrymen who voluntarily attached themselves to a misl.

they kept the lands they held before joining the misl as an allotment for their cooperation with the misl.

the leaders of these groups, called misaldars, could transfer their allegiance and land to another misl without punishment.

the tabadari system referred to land under the control of a misl's tabadars.

tabadars served a similar function to retainers in europe.

they were required to serve as cavalrymen to the misl and were subservient to the misl's leader.

although tabadars received their land as a reward, their ownership was subject entirely on the misl's leader.

the tabadari grants were only hereditary on the choice of the chief of the misl.

the jagirdari system used the grant of jagirs by the chief of the misl.

jagirs were given by the chief of the misl to relations, dependents, and people who "deserved well".

the owners of jagirs were subservient to the chief of the misl as their ownership was subject his her needs.

like the tabadars, jagirdars were subject to personal service when the chief of the misl requested.

however, because jagirs entailed more land and profit, they were required to use the money generated by their jagirs to equip and mount a quota of cavalrymen depending on the size of their jagir.

jagirdari grants were hereditary in practice but a misl's chief could revoke the rights of the heir.

upon the death of the owner of a tabadari or jagadari grant, the land would revert to direct control of the chief sardari .

territory the two main divisions in territory between the misls were between those who were in the malwa region and those who were in the majha region.

while eleven of the misls were north of the sutlej river, one, the phulkian misl was south of the sutlej.

the sikhs north of the sutlej river were known as the majha sikhs while the sikhs that lived south of the sutlej river were known as the malwa sikhs.

in the smaller territories were the dhanigeb singhs in the sind sagar doab, the gujrat singhs in the jech doab, the dharpi singhs in the rechna doab, and the doaba singhs in the jalandhar doab.

sikh women in state affairs bibliography see also notes references external links thesikhkmisl.com jehlam river or jhelum river is a river that flows in the indian and pakistani controlled portions of kashmir, and punjab in pakistan.

it is the westernmost of the five rivers of punjab, and passes through jhelum district.

it is a tributary of the chenab river and has a total length of about 725 kilometres 450 mi .

etymology anjum sultan shahbaz recorded some stories of the name jhelum in his book tareekh-e-jhelum as many writers have different opinions about the name of jhelum.

one suggestion is that in ancient days jhelumabad was known as jalham.

the word jhelum is reportedly derived from the words jal pure water and ham snow .

the name thus refers to the waters of a river flowing besides the city which have their origins in the snow-capped himalayas.

however, some writers believe that when "dara-e-azam" reached a certain place on the river bank after winning many battles, he fixed his flag at that place and called it "ja-e-alam" which means "place of the flag".

with the passage of time it became jhelum from "ja-e-alam".

the sanskrit name of this river is vitasta.

the river got this name from the mythological incident regarding the origin of the river as explained in nilamata purana.

goddess parvati was requested by sage kasyapa to come to kashmir for purification of the land from evil practices and impurities of pisachas living there.

goddess parvati then assumed the form of a river in the nether world.

then lord shiva made a stroke with his spear near the abode of nila verinag spring .

by that stroke of the spear, goddess parvati came out of the nether world.

shiva himself named her as vitasta.

he had excavated with the spear a ditch measuring one vitasti a particular measure of length defined either as a long span between the extended thumb and little finger, or as the distance between the wrist and the tip of the fingers, and said to be about 9 inches , through which the river - gone to the nether world - had come out, so she was given the name vitasta by him.

history the river jhelum is called in the rigveda and hydaspes by the ancient greeks.

the vitasta sanskrit , fem., also, is mentioned as one of the major rivers by the holy scriptures the rigveda.

it has been speculated that the must have been one of the seven rivers sapta-sindhu mentioned so many times in the rigveda.

the name survives in the kashmiri name for this river as vyeth.

according to the major religious work srimad bhagavatam, the is one of the many transcendental rivers flowing through land of bharata, or ancient india.

the river was regarded as a god by the ancient greeks, as were most mountains and streams the poet nonnus in the dionysiaca section 26, line 350 makes the hydaspes a titan-descended god, the son of the sea-god thaumas and the cloud-goddess elektra.

he was the brother of iris, the goddess of the rainbow, and half-brother to the harpies, the snatching winds.

since the river is in a country foreign to the ancient greeks, it is not clear whether they named the river after the god, or whether the god hydaspes was named after the river.

alexander the great and his army crossed the jhelum in bc 326 at the battle of the hydaspes river where he defeated the indian king, porus.

according to arrian anabasis, 29 , he built a city "on the spot whence he started to cross the river hydaspes", which he named bukephala or bucephala to honour his famous horse bukephalus or bucephalus which was buried in jalalpur sharif.

it is thought that ancient bukephala was near the site of modern jhelum city.

according to a historian of gujrat district, mansoor behzad butt, bukephalus was buried in jalalpur sharif, but the people of mandi bahauddin, a district close to jehlum, believed that their tehsil phalia was named after bucephalus, alexander's dead horse.

they say that the name phalia was the distortion of the word bucephala.

the waters of the jhelum are allocated to pakistan under the terms of the indus waters treaty.

india is working on a hydropower project on a tributary of jhelum river to establish first-use rights on the river water over pakistan as per the indus waters treaty.

course the river jhelum rises from verinag spring situated at the foot of the pir panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of kashmir.

it flows through srinagar and the wular lake before entering pakistan through a deep narrow gorge.

the neelum river, the largest tributary of the jhelum, joins it, at domel muzaffarabad, as does the next largest, the kunhar river of the kaghan valley.

it also connects with rest of pakistan and pakistani kashmir on kohala bridge east of circle bakote.

it is then joined by the poonch river, and flows into the mangla dam reservoir in the district of mirpur.

the jhelum enters the punjab in the jhelum district.

from there, it flows through the plains of pakistan's punjab, forming the boundary between the chaj and sindh sagar doabs.

it ends in a confluence with the chenab at trimmu in district jhang.

the chenab merges with the sutlej to form the panjnad river which joins the indus river at mithankot.

dams and barrages water control structures are being built as a result of the indus basin project, including the following mangla dam, completed in 1967, is one of the largest earthfill dams in the world, with a storage capacity of 5,900,000 acre feet 7.3 km3 rasul barrage, constructed in 1967, has a maximum flow of 850,000 s 24,000 s .

trimmu barrage, constructed in 1939 some 90 km from mari shah sakhira town, at the confluence with the chenab, has maximum discharge capacity of 645,000 s 18,000 s .

haranpur victoria bridge constructed in 1933 approximate 5 km from malakwal near chak nizam village.

its length is 1 km mainly used by pakistan railways but there is a passage for light vehicles, motorcycles, cycles and pedestrians at one side.

canals the upper jhelum canal runs from mangla dam to the chenab.

the rasul-qadirabad link canal runs from the rasul barrage to the chenab.

the chashma-jhelum link canal runs from the chashma barrage on the indus river to the jhelum river downstream of rasul barrage.

this is 40 kilometres 25 mi from mari shah sakhira town.

gallery references external links livius.org pictures of the hydaspes the chenab river is a major river of india and pakistan.

it forms in the upper himalayas in the lahaul and spiti district of himachal pradesh, india, and flows through the jammu region of jammu and kashmir into the plains of the punjab, pakistan.

the waters of the chenab are allocated to pakistan under the terms of the indus waters treaty.

history the river was known to indians in the vedic period as chandrabhaga sanskrit — , also asikni sanskrit € or iskmati sanskrit and as acesines to the ancient greeks.

in 325 bc, alexander the great allegedly founded the town of alexandria on the indus present day uch sharif or mithankot or chacharan in pakistan at the confluence of the indus and the combined stream of punjab rivers currently known as the panjnad river .

image gallery references the ravi punjabi €, urdu , sanskrit €, , hindi € is a transboundary river crossing northwestern india and eastern pakistan.

it is one of six rivers of the indus system in punjab region punjab means "five rivers" .

the waters of ravi are allocated to india under indus water treaty.

under the indus waters treaty of 1960, the waters of the ravi and five other rivers are divided between india and pakistan.

subsequently, the indus basin project has been developed in pakistan and many inter-basin water transfers, irrigation, hydropower and multipurpose projects have been built in india.

history according to ancient history traced to vedas, the ravi river was known as iravati also spelt eeraveti the ravi was known as parushani or iravati to indians in vedic times and as hydraotes to the ancient greeks.

part of the battle of the ten kings was fought on a river, which according to yaska nirukta 9.26 refers to the iravati river ravi river in the punjab.

geography the ravi river, a transboundary river of india and pakistan, is an integral part of the indus river basin and forms the headwaters of the indus basin.

the waters of the ravi river drain into the arabian sea indian ocean through the indus river in pakistan.

the river rises in the bara bhangal, district kangra in himachal pradesh, india.

the river drains a total catchment area of 14,442 square kilometres 5,576 sq mi in india after flowing for a length of 720 kilometres 450 mi .

flowing westward, it is hemmed by the pir panjal and dhauladhar ranges, forming a triangular zone.

river course source reach the ravi river originates in the himalayas in the multhan tehsil of kangra district of himachal pradesh, india.

it follows a north-westerly course and is a perennial river.

it is the smallest of the five punjab rivers that rises from glacier fields at an elevation of 14,000 feet 4,300 m , on the southern side of the mid himalayas.

it flows through barabhangal, bara bansu and chamba districts.

it flows in rapids in its initial reaches with boulders seen scattered in the bed of the river.

the ravi river in this reach flows in a gorge with a river bed slope of 183 feet per mile 34.7 m km and is mostly fed by snow melt, as this region lies in a rain shadow.

two of its major tributaries, the buddhu and mai or dhona join 64 kilometres 40 mi downstream from its source.

the budhil river rises in lahul range of hills and is sourced from the manimahesh kailash peak and the manimahesh lake, at an elevation of 4,080 metres 13,390 ft , and both are hindu pilgrimage sites.

the entire length of budhil is 72 kilometres 45 mi where it has a bed slope of 314 feet per mile 59.5 m km .

it flows through the ancient capital of bharmwar, now known as bharmour in himachal pradesh.

during , the raja of bharmour had considered the budhil valley as an excellent source of deodar trees for supply to the british raj.

however, a part of the forest surrounding the temple was considered sacred and declared a reserved area.

the second tributary, the mai, rises at kali debi pass, and flows for 48 kilometres 30 mi , with a bed slope of 366 feet per mile 69.3 m km , from its source at trilokinath to its confluence with the ravi.

this valley was also exploited for its forest wealth during the english period.

another major tributary that joins the ravi river, just below bharmour, the old capital of chamba, is the seul river from the northern direction.

the valley formed by the river was also exploited for its rich timber trees.

however, the valley has large terraces, which are very fertile and known as "the garden of chamba".

crops grown here supply grains to the capital region and to dalhousie town and its surrounding areas.

one more major tributary that joins the ravi river near bissoli is the siawa.

this river was also exploited for its forest resources, controlled by the then raja of chamba originating from the jammu region.

the valley is also formed by another major tributary that joins seul river, the baira-nalla.

its sub-basin is in the chamba district, located above tissa.

baira drains the southern slopes of the pir panjal range.

the valley has an elevation variation between 5,321 metres 17,457 ft and 2,693 metres 8,835 ft .

tant gari is another small tributary that rises from the subsidiary hill ranges of the pir panjal range east of bharmour.

the valley formed by this stream is u-shaped with a river bed scattered with boulders and glacial morainic deposits.

main ravi river the main ravi river flows through the base of dalhousie hill, past the chamba town.

it is at an elevation of 856 metres 2,807 ft where a long wooden bridge existed to cross the ravi river .

it flows into the south-west, near dalhousie, and then cuts a gorge in the dhauladhar range, before entering the punjab plain near madhopur and pathankot.

it then flows along the border for 80 kilometres 50 mi before entering pakistan and joining the chenab river.

the total length of the river is about 725 kilometres 450 mi .

ujh river is another major tributary of the ravi river.

its source is in the kailash mountains at an elevation of 4,300 metres 14,100 ft , close to the bhaderwah mountains in jammu district.

after flowing for 100 kilometres 62 mi , it joins ravi at nainkot in pakistan.

as the ravi flows past lahore in pakistan 26 kilometres 16 mi below amritsar in india it is called "the river of lahore" since that city is on its eastern bank.

after passing through lahore the river takes a turn at kamlia and then debouches into the chenab river, south of the town of ahmadpur sial.

on its western bank is the town of shahdara bagh with the tomb of jahangir and the tomb of noor jahan.

change of river course according to satellite imagery studies carried out over a period of 20 years between and , the river coursing along the border meanders substantially in the alluvial plains of the amritsar and gurdaspur districts of punjab.

this has resulted in successive damage in the indian territory as a result of the river changing its course towards india.

the reason attributed to this change in the course of the river is massive river training structures bunds constructed by pakistan in its part of the river, close to the old course of the river.

the shift in the course of the river is reported to be 4.8 kilometres 3.0 mi towards india.

river water pollution in the trans-boundary ravi river flowing from india to pakistan, in urban areas of lahore the pollution levels in the river discharge are reportedly very high, which is attributed to careless disposal of large amount of industrial and agricultural waste water and faulty drainage systems in both countries.

a 72-kilometre 45 mi stretch of the ravi river from lahore siphon to baloki headworks indicates heavy contamination of the water and sediment with cd, cr, pt and cu.

the river sediments are highly contaminated and have become secondary source for pollution of the river water, even though some control over unauthorised discharges into the river have been checked.

hence, measures to check metal re-mobilization from sediments into the river flows needs attention.

the worst affected drainage is the hadharaam drain, a tributary of the ravi river.

it is also a trans-border problem involving both india and pakistan.

a undp funded a special programme was launched in 2006 to address the issue in both countries.

vegetation the ravi valley in its upper reaches has deodar, walnut, quercus ilex, mulberry, alder, edible pine pinus gerardiana , twisted cypress cupressus torulosa , chinar platanus orientalis , daphne papyracea, cedrela serata, and sisso, olive and kakkar raus .

hydrology the waters of the ravi river are allocated to india under the indus waters treaty, signed by india and pakistan.

within india, the river is under the jurisdiction of the riparian states of punjab and himachal and non-riparian states of haryana, kashmir and rajasthan, but management is presided by the supreme court of india and the ravi beas tribunal, set up in 1986 for the purpose.

pre-partition utilisation on the ravi river, the earliest project built was the madhopur headworks, in 1902.

it is a run-of-the river project no storage envisaged to divert flows through the upper bari doab canal also known as central bari doab canal to provide irrigation in the command area of the then unified india.

doabas formed by the ravi river are known as the rechna doab between the chenab and the ravi river, and the bari doab or majha between the ravi and the beas river.

government of india has assessed the pre-partition use in india punjab as 1.821 cubic kilometres 1,476,000 .

hydropower the hydropower potential of ravi river system has been assessed as 2294 mw.

the hydropower potential developed since the 1980s is through installation of baira suil hydroelelectric power project of 198 mw capacity, the chamera-i of 540 mw capacity commissioned in 1994, the ranjitsagar multipurpose project 600 mw completed in 1999 and the chamera-ii of 300 mw capacity in the upstream of chamera-i commissioned in 2004.

multipurpose development the major multipurpose project irrigation, hydropower, flood control, development of fisheries, tourism and so forth built on the river is the ranjit sagar dam also known as thein dam as it is in thein village .

the left bank is in punjab and the right bank is in jammu and kashmir.

it is located on the main stem of the ravi river, about 24 kilometres 15 mi upstream of madhopur headworks built during pre-partition time .

the project is an outcome of the development plan conceived for the use of the waters of three eastern rivers allocated to india under the indus treaty, namely the sutlej, the beas and the ravi, for irrigation, hydropower generation and other consumptive uses.

a proposal for building a storage dam on the ravi river was initially planned in 1912, envisaging a 61 metres 200 ft high dam.

a committee later conducted a survey of the area, but it was not until 1954 that geologists fully inspected the project area.

in 1957, a storage dam was proposed on the ravi river for irrigation purposes only.

the power generation aspect was not considered then.

it was only in 1964 that the project was conceived for multipurpose development and submitted to government of india for approval.

finally, in april 1982, the project was approved for construction by the government of india.

the project, as built now, has a 160-metre 520 ft high earth gravel shell dam with a gross irrigation potential of 348,000 hectares 860,000 acres of land and power generation of 600 mw 4 units of 150 mw capacity each .

the geomorpohological setting of the river basin, which has a large number of terraces between dhauladhar and pir panjal ranges, is attributed to the truly himalayan characteristics of the river reflecting the "cis-himalayan tectonic structural, lithological and climatic conditions.

obviously it is different from the antecedent indus and sutlej".

international water-sharing treaty the upper reaches of the main indus river and its tributaries lie in india whereas the lower reaches are in pakistan.

following the partition of india in august 1947, a dispute arose between india and pakistan on sharing of the waters of the indus river basin.

the dispute was resolved with the intervention of the world bank and a treaty was signed in 1960 on sharing of the indus waters between india and pakistan.

the indus system of rivers comprises the three western rivers in the indus, the jhelum and chenab together with three eastern rivers the sutlej, the beas and the ravi.

to establish the ownership of these waters, an indus water treaty was signed between india and pakistan on 1 april 1960, under monitoring of the world bank.

the treaty, under article 5.1, envisages the sharing of waters of the rivers ravi, beas, sutlej, jhelum and chenab which join the indus river on its left bank eastern side in pakistan.

according to this treaty, ravi, beas and sutlej, which constitute the eastern rivers, are allocated for exclusive use by india before they enter pakistan.

however, a transition period of 10 years was permitted in which india was bound to supply water to pakistan from these rivers until pakistan was able to build the canal system for utilisation of waters of jhelum, chenab and the indus itself, allocated to it under the treaty.

similarly, pakistan has exclusive use of the western rivers jhelum, chenab and indus but with some stipulations for development of projects on these rivers in india.

pakistan also received one-time financial compensation for the loss of water from the eastern rivers.

since 31 march 1970, after the 10-year moratorium, india has secured full rights for use of the waters of the three rivers allocated to it.

the treaty resulted in partitioning of the rivers rather than sharing of their waters.

under this treaty, the two countries also agreed to exchange data and co-operate in matters related to the treaty.

for this purpose, treaty envisaged creation of the permanent indus commission, with a commissioner appointed by each country.

the indus waters treaty is the only international treaty that has been implemented over the last 60 years with due diligence and sincerity by both india and pakistan, in spite of many wars fought between the two countries the treaty was not revoked either by india or pakistan during the 1965 or the 1971 war .

interstate water dispute even prior to the partition of india in august 1947, india had developed projects on the river ravi and beas river system.

when the treaty was under debate, india had taken advance action to develop the three rivers, which were eventually allocated to it under the treaty.

according to a directive of the government of india, planning for development of the ravi and beas rivers was initiated concurrently with the treaty negotiations, which involved four riparian states of punjab, pepsu this was merged with punjab and subsequently punjab was divided, and additionally the haryana state was created , himachal pradesh, rajasthan and jammu and kashmir j&k within the ambit of the already developed bhakra nangal dam project on the sutlej river.

a review of the flows in the two river systems revealed that prior to partition of the country and up to the time of the signing of the indus treaty, 3.86 cubic kilometres 3,130,000 of water was used by major irrigation systems such as the upper bari doab canal system 1959 and the lower bari doab canal system 1915 .

the unused flow in the two river systems was assessed at 19.22 cubic kilometres 15,580,000 , which was planned to be developed by the four states of j&k, pepsu, punjab and rajasthan.

however, with the merger of pepsu with punjab and subsequent bifurcation of punjab into two states, a dispute arose on the allocation of ravi and beas waters for which a tribunal was set up under the interstate river water disputes act.

as a counter claim to the exclusive claims of punjab, haryana claims that a small part of haryana state lying north in panchkula district is part of sutlej river basin area in addition to punjab and himachal pradesh in india.

thus haryana claims to be a riparian state of indus river basin.

following the reorganisation of the state of punjab in 1966, haryana state was created.

this was followed by a notification by the government of india dated 24 march 1976 allocating the surplus waters between punjab and haryana in due consideration of the powers conferred by sub section i of section 78 of the punjab reorganization act, 1966 31 of 1966 .

the allocation was challenged in the supreme court by haryana.

a tripartite agreement followed on 31 december 1981, based on the revised mean annual flows from the flow series of assessed as 25.36 cubic kilometres 20,560,000 prepartition use of 3.86 cubic kilometres 3,130,000 and transit losses in the madhopur beas link of 260,000 acre feet 0.32 km3 -a-vis the figure of 19.55 cubic kilometres 15,850,000 assessed in earlier allocation, which was based on the flow series of .

the revised assessed surplus supplies of 17,170,000 acre feet 21.18 km3 from flow and storage was allocated as share of punjab 4.22 million acre-ft maf share of haryana 3.50 maf share of rajasthan 8.60 maf quantity earmarked for delhi water supply 0.20 maf share of jammu & kashmir 0.65maf with some specific provisions.

however, the legality of this agreement was challenged by punjab.

this was followed by the punjab accord signed by the then prime minister of india rajiv gandhi and sant harchand singh longowal, president of the shiromani akali dal, on 24 july 1985.

this accord stipulated that the farmers of punjab, haryana and rajasthan will continue to get water not less than what they are using from the ravi beas system as on 1.7.1985.

waters used for consumptive purposes will also remain unaffected.

quantum of usage claimed shall be verified by the tribunal referred to in paragraph 9.2 below.

9.2 the claim of punjab and haryana regarding the shares in their remaining waters shall be referred for adjudication to a tribunal to be presided over by supreme court judge.

the decision of this tribunal will be rendered within six months and would be binding on both parties.

all legal and constitutional steps in this respect to be taken expeditiously 9.3 the construction of sutlej yamuna link s.y.l.

canal shall continue.

the canal shall be completed by august 1986.

following the above accord, ravi & beas waters tribunal rbwt came to be set up in april 1986, in pursuance of paragraphs 9.1 & 9.2 of punjab settlement rajiv-longowal accord, 1985 inter-alia to adjudicate the claims of punjab and haryana in ravi-beas waters.

the terms of reference was set and also the time for submission of the report.

the tribunal submitted its report on 30 january 1987.

however, the report was contested as rajasthan also moved an application "seeking explanation and guidance regarding the report of this ravi beas waters tribunal, 1987".

the tribunal is further examining the matter.

it is yet to submit its further report to the government on the pleas submitted by the party states and the central government also seeking explanation guidance on its earlier report.

in the mean time, a presidential reference on punjab termination of agreements act, 2004 is pending before the honorable supreme court.

hence, the further hearings of the tribunal and its final report are now enjoined on the outcome of the supreme court hearing of the presidential reference.

punjab has not allowed the construction of the sutlej yamuna link syl canal in its territory for transferring haryana share of water from the indus river basin.

the syl canal lying in haryana was completed but idling for want of water from the sutlej river.

if haryana is interested in getting its water share as per the agreements, it can construct the remaining canal via himachal pradesh area bypassing punjab area totally by tapping water directly from the bhakra nangal reservoir located in himachal pradesh.

the minimum drawdown level of bhakra nangal reservoir and the topography in himachal state is suitable for the syl refer google earth .

additional water from sutlej river is very much useful to augment drinking water supplies of ever expanding cities like delhi, gurgoan, panchkula, chandigarh, etc.

in addition to meet the agriculture and industrial requirements in entire haryana state.

punjab is contemplating to construct 206 mw shahpurkandi dam project hydro electric project on the ravi river between ranjitsagar dam and madhopur head works.

this stretch of the river is forming boundary between j & k state and punjab state.

since punjab had unilaterally exited from the earlier water sharing agreements, j & k state refused the project construction.

also j & k state is going ahead with the construction of ravi canal originating from basantpur to irrigate 54,000 hectares 133,000 acres of land in jammu region.

this canal would draw river water by pumping the water released downstream from the rangitsagar reservoir for which j & k state is not required to take consent from punjab as it is not bound by earlier river water sharing agreements.

interbasin water transfer transfer of surplus water from one basin to another, termed as interbasin water transfer has been effectively implemented on the ravi river.

the surplus waters of the ravi river have been transferred directly first to the beas river through the ravi-beas link.

a further link from beas river to the sutlej river by the beas sutlej link augments storage of the bhakra reservoir in india.

see also sapta sindhu indus waters treaty ranjit sagar dam project external links indian climate change from harappa period.

indus transition.

cleghorn, h. 2001 .

report upon the forests of the punjab and the western himalaya.

ravi river.

indus publishing.

pp.

isbn 81-7387-120-5.

retrieved 14 april 2010.

garg, santosh kumar 1999 .

international and interstate river water disputes.

laxmi publications.

pp.

isbn 81-7008-068-1.

retrieved 14 april 2010.

jain, sharad.k.

pushpendra k. agarwal vijay p. singh 2007 .

hydrology and water resources of india.

springer.

pp.

isbn 1-4020-5179-4.

retrieved 14 april 2010.

the indian geographical journal, volume 60.

indian geographical society.

1985. p. 188.

retrieved 14 april 2010.

references the beas river also known as the or bias, sanskrit, vipasa greek, hyphasis , is a river in north india.

the river rises in the himalayas in central himachal pradesh, india, and flows for some 470 kilometres 290 mi to the sutlej river in the indian state of punjab.

its total length is 470 kilometres 290 mi and its drainage basin is 20,303 square kilometres 7,839 sq mi large.

etymology the river was also known as arjikuja of the vedas, or vipasa to the ancient indians, and the hyphasis to the ancient greeks.

it is said that beas is a misnomer for vyasa exchange of b with v and always truncation of the last vowel is common in north indian languages and is named after veda vyasa, the presiding patron of the river he is said to have created it from its source lake, the vyas kund.

history the beas river marks the eastern-most border of alexander the great's conquests in 326 bc.

it was one of the rivers which created problems in alexander's invasion of india.

his troops mutinied here in 326 bce, refusing to go any further they had been away from home for eight years.

alexander shut himself in his tent for three days, but when his men did not change their desires he gave in, raising twelve colossal altars to mark the limit and glory of his expedition.

according to the kavyamimansa of rajasekhara, the kingdom-territories of the gurjara-pratihara monarch mahipala i extended as far as the upper course of the river beas in the north-west.

in the 20th century, the river was developed under the beas project for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation purposes.

the second-phase pong dam was completed in 1974 followed by the first-phase 140 kilometres 87 mi upstream, pandoh dam in 1977.

the pong dam served initially to primarily provide irrigation below talwara but was soon developed as well for power generation its power station has a 360 mw installed capacity.

the pandoh dam diverts the river through a system of tunnels and channels to the 990 mw dehar power station on the sutlej river, connecting both rivers.

course the river rises 4,361 metres 14,308 ft above sea-level on the southern face of rohtang pass in kullu.

it traverses the mandi district and enters the kangra district at sandhol, 590 metres 1,940 ft above sea-level.

during its lower course the beas is crossed by numerous ferries, many of which consist of inflated skins darais .

near reh in kangra district it divides into three channels, which reunite after passing mirthal, 300 metres 980 ft above sea-level.

on meeting the sivalik hills in hoshiarpur, the river sweeps sharply northward, forming the boundary with kangra district.

then bending round the base of the sivalik hills, it takes the southerly direction, separating the districts of gurdaspur and hoshiapur.

after touching the jullundur district for a short distance, the river forms the boundary between amritsar and kapurthala.

finally the beas joins the river sutlej at the south-western boundary of kapurthala district of punjab after a total course of 470 kilometres 290 mi .

the chief tributaries are bain, banganga, luni and uhal.

the sutlej continues into pakistani punjab and joins the chenab river at uch near bahawalpur to form the panjnad river the latter in turn joins the indus river at mithankot.

the water of the beas river is allocated to india under the terms of the indus waters treaty between india and pakistan.

tragedy on 8 june 2014, 24 engineering students, and one tour operator, were drowned when the flood gates of the larji dam were opened, allegedly without proper warnings and procedure.

the water level rose suddenly to 5 to 6 feet 1.5 to 1.8 m , and the surge carried the students away.

references chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter.

chemistry includes topics such as the properties of individual atoms, how atoms form chemical bonds to create chemical compounds, the interactions of substances through intermolecular forces that give matter its general properties, and the interactions between substances through chemical reactions to form different substances.

chemistry is sometimes called the central science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics, geology and biology.

for the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics.

the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world.

etymology the word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism and medicine.

it is often seen as linked to the quest to turn lead or another common starting material into gold, though in ancient times the study encompassed many of the questions of modern chemistry being defined as the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies by the early 4th century greek-egyptian alchemist zosimos.

an alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".

the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the arabic word al- .

in origin, the term is borrowed from the greek or .

this may have egyptian origins since al- is derived from the greek , which is in turn derived from the word chemi or kimi, which is the ancient name of egypt in egyptian.

alternately, al- may derive from , meaning "cast together".

definition in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science.

the term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist robert boyle in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies.

in 1663 the chemist christopher glaser described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection.

the 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by georg ernst stahl, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles and of composing such bodies from those principles.

in 1837, jean-baptiste dumas considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces.

this definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances - a characterization accepted by linus pauling.

more recently, in 1998, professor raymond chang broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

history early civilizations, such as the egyptians babylonians, indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didn't develop a systematic theory.

a basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in classical greece with the theory of four elements as propounded definitively by aristotle stating that fire, air, earth and water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination.

greek atomism dates back to 440 bc, arising in works by philosophers such as democritus and epicurus.

in 50 bc, the roman philosopher lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book de rerum natura on the nature of things .

unlike modern concepts of science, greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments.

in the hellenistic world the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into gold and discovering the elixir of eternal life.

work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century greek-egyptian zosimos of panopolis.

alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the arab world after the muslim conquests, and from there, and from the byzantine remnants, diffused into medieval and renaissance europe through latin translations.

some influential muslim chemists, al- al- , avicenna and al-kindi refuted the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals and al-tusi described a version of the conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change but is not able to disappear.

chemistry as science the development of the modern scientific method was slow and arduous, but an early scientific method for chemistry began emerging among early muslim chemists, beginning with the 9th century persian or arabian chemist ibn known as "geber" in europe , who is sometimes referred to as "the father of chemistry".

he introduced a systematic and experimental approach to scientific research based in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient greek and egyptian alchemists whose works were largely allegorical and often unintelligble.

under the influence of the new empirical methods propounded by sir francis bacon and others, a group of chemists at oxford, robert boyle, robert hooke and john mayow began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline.

boyle in particular is regarded as the founding father of chemistry due to his most important work, the classic chemistry text the sceptical chymist where the differentiation is made between the claims of alchemy and the empirical scientific discoveries of the new chemistry.

he formulated boyle's law, rejected the classical "four elements" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and chemical reactions that could be subject to rigorous experiment.

the theory of phlogiston a substance at the root of all combustion was propounded by the german georg ernst stahl in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the french chemist antoine lavoisier, the chemical analogue of newton in physics who did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of conservation of mass and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.

before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, specifically relating to the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases.

the scottish chemist joseph black the first experimental chemist and the dutchman j.

b. van helmont discovered carbon dioxide, or what black called 'fixed air' in 1754 henry cavendish discovered hydrogen and elucidated its properties and joseph priestley and, independently, carl wilhelm scheele isolated pure oxygen.

english scientist john dalton proposed the modern theory of atoms that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights.

the development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular, j. j. berzelius and humphry davy, made possible by the prior invention of the voltaic pile by alessandro volta.

davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current.

british william prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen.

a. r. newlands devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern periodic table of elements in the 1860s by dmitri mendeleev and independently by several other scientists including julius lothar meyer.

the inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by william ramsay in collaboration with lord rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.

organic chemistry was developed by justus von liebig and others, following friedrich 's synthesis of urea which proved that living organisms were, in theory, reducible to chemistry.

other crucial 19th century advances were an understanding of valence bonding edward frankland in 1852 and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry j. w. gibbs and svante arrhenius in the 1870s .

chemical structure at the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms.

in 1897, j. j. thomson of cambridge university discovered the electron and soon after the french scientist becquerel as well as the couple pierre and marie curie investigated the phenomenon of radioactivity.

in a series of pioneering scattering experiments ernest rutherford at the university of manchester discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the first element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles.

his work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the danish physicist niels bohr and henry moseley.

the electronic theory of chemical bonds and molecular orbitals was developed by the american scientists linus pauling and gilbert n. lewis.

the year 2011 was declared by the united nations as the international year of chemistry.

it was an initiative of the international union of pure and applied chemistry, and of the united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities.

principles of modern chemistry the current model of atomic structure is the quantum mechanical model.

traditional chemistry starts with the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter.

this matter can be studied in solid, liquid, or gas states, in isolation or in combination.

the interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which hold atoms together.

such behaviors are studied in a chemistry laboratory.

the chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of laboratory glassware.

however glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental as well as applied industrial chemistry is done without it.

a chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances.

the basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms.

it can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation, which usually involves atoms as subjects.

the number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal.

when the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay.

the type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.

energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies.

chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase, as well as their chemical compositions.

they can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g.

spectroscopy and chromatography.

scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists.

most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines.

several concepts are essential for the study of chemistry some of them are matter in chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and volume it takes up space and is made up of particles.

the particles that make up matter have rest mass as well - not all particles have rest mass, such as the photon.

matter can be a pure chemical substance or a mixture of substances.

atom the atom is the basic unit of chemistry.

it consists of a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a space called the electron cloud.

the nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons together called nucleons , while the electron cloud consists of negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus.

in a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons.

the nucleus is dense the mass of a nucleon is 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.

the atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element, such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state s , coordination number, and preferred types of bonds to form e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent .

element a chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the atomic number and represented by the symbol z.

the mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as isotopes.

for example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13.

the standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table, which orders elements by atomic number.

the periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns, and periods, or rows.

the periodic table is useful in identifying periodic trends.

compound a compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element.

the properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements.

the standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the international union of pure and applied chemistry iupac .

organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system.

inorganic compounds are named according to the inorganic nomenclature system.

in addition the chemical abstracts service has devised a method to index chemical substances.

in this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its cas registry number.

molecule a molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances.

however, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances see below .

molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.

thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions.

when this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion.

however, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer.

charged polyatomic collections residing in solids for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry.

some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating radicals.

most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide no can be stable.

the "inert" or noble gas elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way.

identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various pharmaceuticals.

however, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the earth are chemical compounds without molecules.

these other types of substances, such as ionic compounds and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules per se.

instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance.

examples of such substances are mineral salts such as table salt , solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz and granite.

one of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure.

while the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivial, linear, angular pyramidal etc.

the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms of several elements can be crucial for its chemical nature.

substance and mixture a chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties.

a collection of substances is called a mixture.

examples of mixtures are air and alloys.

mole and amount of substance the mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an amount of substance also called chemical amount .

the mole is defined as the number of atoms found in exactly 0.012 kilogram or 12 grams of carbon-12, where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their ground state.

the number of entities per mole is known as the avogadro constant, and is determined empirically to be approximately 6. .

molar concentration is the amount of a particular substance per volume of solution, and is commonly reported in .

phase in addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases.

for the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties.

a phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature.

physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase.

the phase of matter is defined by the phase transition, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions.

sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state.

when three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.

the most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases.

many substances exhibit multiple solid phases.

for example, there are three phases of solid iron alpha, gamma, and delta that vary based on temperature and pressure.

a principal difference between solid phases is the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms.

another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in aqueous solution that is, in water .

less familiar phases include plasmas, condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials.

while most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology.

bonding atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another.

a chemical bond may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them.

more than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom.

a chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond or just because of van der waals force.

each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential.

these potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in molecules or crystals.

in many simple compounds, valence bond theory, the valence shell electron pair repulsion model vsepr , and the concept of oxidation number can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.

an ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion.

the two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them.

for example, sodium na , a metal, loses one electron to become an na cation while chlorine cl , a non-metal, gains this electron to become .

the ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chloride nacl , or common table salt, is formed.

in a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule.

atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration eight electrons in their outermost shell for each atom.

atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule.

however, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration these atoms are said to follow the duet rule, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer shell.

similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures.

with more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the molecular orbital theory, are generally used.

see diagram on electronic orbitals.

energy in the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure.

since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved.

some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.

a reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse.

a reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings in the case of endothermic reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.

chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy.

the speed of a chemical reaction at given temperature t is related to the activation energy e, by the boltzmann's population factor e e kt - that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to e at the given temperature t. this exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the arrhenius equation.

the activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound.

a related concept free energy, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical thermodynamics.

a reaction is feasible only if the total change in the gibbs free energy is negative, g 0 displaystyle delta g leq 0 , if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at equilibrium.

there exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules.

these are determined by the rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization of energy of a bound system.

the atoms molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited.

the molecules atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive that is, more amenable to chemical reactions.

the phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings.

when the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water h2o a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen bonds.

whereas hydrogen sulfide h2s is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker dipole-dipole interactions.

the transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance.

however, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer.

thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy.

for example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

the existence of characteristic energy levels for different chemical substances is useful for their identification by the analysis of spectral lines.

different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical spectroscopy, e.g.

ir, microwave, nmr, esr, etc.

spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects - like stars and distant galaxies - by analyzing their radiation spectra.

the term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances.

reaction when a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred.

a chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution exposure to some form of energy, or both.

it results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed laboratory glassware.

chemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules.

chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds.

oxidation, reduction, dissociation, acid-base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions.

a chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation.

while in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz.

protons and neutrons.

the sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism.

a chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed.

many reaction intermediates with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction.

reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relative product mix of a reaction.

many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions.

several empirical rules, like the rules often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.

according to the iupac gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species."

accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction.

an additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable.

such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities i.e.

'microscopic chemical events' .

ions and salts an ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons.

when an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or cation.

when an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or anion.

cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the na and ions forming sodium chloride, or nacl.

examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide and phosphate .

plasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.

acidity and basicity a substance can often be classified as an acid or a base.

there are several different theories which explain acid-base behavior.

the simplest is arrhenius theory, which states than an acid is a substance that produces hydronium ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.

according to theory, acids are substances that donate a positive hydrogen ion to another substance in a chemical reaction by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.

a third common theory is lewis acid-base theory, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds.

lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond.

according to this theory, the crucial things being exchanged are charges.

there are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept.

acid strength is commonly measured by two methods.

one measurement, based on the arrhenius definition of acidity, is ph, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative logarithmic scale.

thus, solutions that have a low ph have a high hydronium ion concentration, and can be said to be more acidic.

the other measurement, based on the definition, is the acid dissociation constant ka , which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the definition of an acid.

that is, substances with a higher ka are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower ka values.

redox redox reduction-oxidation reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed by either gaining electrons reduction or losing electrons oxidation .

substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or oxidizers.

an oxidant removes electrons from another substance.

similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers.

a reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus oxidized itself.

and because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor.

oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation actual transfer of electrons may never occur.

thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.

equilibrium although the concept of equilibrium is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind of phase.

a system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not static molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a dynamic equilibrium.

thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time.

chemical laws chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry.

some of them are practice subdisciplines chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines.

there are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.

analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure.

analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry.

these methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.

biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms.

biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry.

biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics.

inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds.

the distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.

materials chemistry is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function.

the field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials.

primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases solids, liquids, polymers and interfaces between different phases.

neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.

nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei.

modern transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field.

organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds.

an organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.

physical chemistry is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes.

in particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists.

important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry.

physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics.

physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations.

it is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry.

physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap.

theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning usually within mathematics or physics .

in particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry.

since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems.

theoretical chemistry has large overlap with theoretical and experimental condensed matter physics and molecular physics.

other disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study.

these include inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matter organic chemistry, the study of organic carbon-based matter biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure.

many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g.

neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system see subdisciplines .

other fields include agrochemistry, astrochemistry and cosmochemistry , atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemo-informatics, electrochemistry, environmental chemistry, femtochemistry, flavor chemistry, flow chemistry, geochemistry, green chemistry, histochemistry, history of chemistry, hydrogenation chemistry, immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mathematical chemistry, mechanochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, molecular mechanics, nanotechnology, natural product chemistry, oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, physical organic chemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry, radiochemistry, solid-state chemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, surface chemistry, synthetic chemistry, thermochemistry, and many others.

chemical industry the chemical industry represents an important economic activity worldwide.

the global top 50 chemical producers in 2013 had sales of us 980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%.

professional societies see also outline of chemistry glossary of chemistry terms common chemicals international year of chemistry list of chemists list of compounds list of important publications in chemistry comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling list of unsolved problems in chemistry periodic systems of small molecules philosophy of chemistry references bibliography atkins, peter de paula, julio 2009 .

elements of physical chemistry 5th ed.

new york oxford university press.

isbn 978-0-19-922672-6.

burrows, andrew holman, john parsons, andrew pilling, gwen price, gareth 2009 .

chemistry3.

italy oxford university press.

isbn 978-0-19-927789-6.

housecroft, catherine e. sharpe, alan g. 2008 .

inorganic chemistry 3rd ed.

harlow, essex pearson education.

isbn 978-0-13-175553-6.

further reading popular reading atkins, p.w.

galileo's finger oxford university press isbn 0-19-860941-8 atkins, p.w.

atkins' molecules cambridge university press isbn 0-521-82397-8 kean, sam.

the disappearing spoon - and other true tales from the periodic table black swan london, 2010 isbn 978-0-552-77750-6 levi, primo the periodic table penguin books translated from the italian by raymond rosenthal 1984 isbn 978-0-14-139944-7 stwertka, a.

a guide to the elements oxford university press isbn 0-19-515027-9 "dictionary of the history of ideas".

archived from the original on march 10, 2008.

"chemistry".

britannica.

6 11th ed.

1911. pp.

introductory undergraduate text books atkins, p.w., overton, t., rourke, j., weller, m. and armstrong, f. shriver and atkins inorganic chemistry 4th edition 2006 oxford university press isbn 0-19-926463-5 chang, raymond.

chemistry 6th ed.

boston james m. smith, 1998.

isbn 0-07-115221-0.

clayden, jonathan greeves, nick warren, stuart wothers, peter 2001 .

organic chemistry 1st ed.

oxford university press.

isbn 978-0-19-850346-0.

voet and voet biochemistry wiley isbn 0-471-58651-x advanced undergraduate-level or graduate text books atkins, p.w.

physical chemistry oxford university press isbn 0-19-879285-9 atkins, p.w.

et al.

molecular quantum mechanics oxford university press mcweeny, r. coulson's valence oxford science publications isbn 0-19-855144-4 pauling, l. the nature of the chemical bond cornell university press isbn 0-8014-0333-2 pauling, l., and wilson, e. b.

introduction to quantum mechanics with applications to chemistry dover publications isbn 0-486-64871-0 smart and moore solid state chemistry an introduction chapman and hall isbn 0-412-40040-5 stephenson, g. mathematical methods for science students longman isbn 0-582-44416-0 external links general chemistry principles, patterns and applications.

a sikh punjabi sikkh is a follower of sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the punjab region of northwestern indian subcontinent.

the term "sikh" has its origin in the sanskrit words disciple, student or instruction .

a sikh, according to article i of the sikh rehat maryada the sikh code of conduct , is "any human being who faithfully believes in one immortal being ten gurus, from guru nanak to guru gobind singh guru granth sahib the teachings of the ten gurus and the baptism bequeathed by the tenth guru".

"sikh" properly refers to adherents of sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group.

however, because sikhism has seldom sought converts, most sikhs share strong ethno-religious ties.

many countries, such as the united kingdom, therefore recognize sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses.

the american non-profit organization united sikhs has fought to have sikh included on the u.s. census as well, arguing that sikhs "self-identify as an 'ethnic group' " and believe "that they are more than just a religion."

male sikhs have "singh" lion , and female sikhs have "kaur" princess as their middle or last name.

sikhs who have undergone the - -pahul the sikh initiation ceremony may also be recognised by the five ks kesh, uncut hair which is kept covered, usually by a turban kara, an iron or steel bracelet a kirpan, a sword tucked into a gatra strap or a kamal kasar belt kachera, a cotton undergarment and kanga, a small wooden comb.

initiated male and female sikhs must cover their hair with a turban.

the greater punjab region is the historic homeland of the sikhs, although significant communities exist around the world.

history guru nanak , founder of sikhism, was born to mehta kalu and mata tripta, in the village of talwandi, now called nankana sahib, near lahore.

guru nanak was a religious leader and social reformer.

however, sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth sikh guru, guru arjan dev, in 1606.

religious practices were formalised by guru gobind singh on 30 march 1699.

gobind singh initiated five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the panj piare the five beloved ones to form the khalsa, or collective body of initiated sikhs.

during the period of mughal rule in india several sikh gurus were killed by the mughals for opposing their persecution of minority religious communities including sikhs.

sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose mughal rule.

after defeating the afghan, mughal and maratha invaders, the misls were formed, under sultan-ul-quam jassa singh ahluwalia.

the confederacy was unified and transformed into the sikh empire under maharaja ranjit singh bahadur, which was characterised by religious tolerance and pluralism, with christians, muslims and hindus in positions of power.

the empire is considered the zenith of political sikhism, encompassing kashmir, ladakh and peshawar.

hari singh nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the sikh khalsa army in the north west frontier, expanded the confederacy to the khyber pass.

its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms.

after the annexation of the sikh kingdom by the british, the latter recognized the martial qualities of the sikhs and punjabis in general and started recruiting from that area.

during the 1857 indian mutiny, the sikhs stayed loyal to the british.

this resulted in heavy recruiting from punjab to the colonial army for the next 90 years of the british raj.

the distinct turban that differentiates a sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the british indian army.

the british colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in india including punjab.

this included formation in 1873 and 1879 of the first and second singh sabha respectively.

the sikh leaders of the singh sabha worked to offer a clear definition of sikh identity and tried to purify sikh belief and practice.

the later part of british colonial rule saw the emergence of the akali movement or the gurdwara reform movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s.

the movement led to the introduction of sikh gurdwara bill in 1925, which placed all the historical sikh shrines in india under the control of shiromani gurdwara parbandhak committee sgpc .

the months leading up to the partition of india in 1947 were marked by conflict in the punjab between sikhs and muslims.

this caused the religious migration of punjabi sikhs and hindus from west punjab, mirroring a similar religious migration of punjabi muslims from east punjab.

the 1960s saw growing animosity between sikhs and hindus in india, with the sikhs demanding the creation of a punjab state on a linguistic basis similar to other states in india.

this was promised to sikh leader master tara singh by jawaharlal nehru, in return for sikh political support during negotiations for indian independence.

although the sikhs obtained the punjab, they lost hindi-speaking areas to himachal pradesh, haryana and rajasthan.

chandigarh was made a union territory and the capital of haryana and punjab on 1 november 1966.

tensions arose again during the late 1970s, fueled by sikh claims of discrimination and marginalisation by the hindu-dominated indian national congress party and tactics adopted by the prime minister indira gandhi.

according to katherine frank, indira gandhi's assumption of emergency powers in 1975 resulted in the weakening of the "legitimate and impartial machinery of government," and her increasing "paranoia" about opposing political groups led her to institute a "despotic policy of playing castes, religions and political groups against each other for political advantage."

sikh leader jarnail singh bhindranwale articulated sikh demands for justice, and this triggered violence in the punjab.

the prime minister's 1984 defeat of bhindranwale led to an attack on the golden temple in operation blue star and to her assassination by her sikh bodyguards.

gandhi's assassination resulted in an explosion of violence against sikh communities and the killing of thousands of sikhs throughout india.

since 1984, relations between sikhs and hindus have moved toward a rapprochement aided by economic prosperity.

however, a 2002 claim by the hindu right-wing rashtriya swayamsevak sangh rss that "sikhs are hindus" disturbed sikh sensibilities.

the khalistan movement campaigns for justice for the victims of the violence, and for the political and economic needs of the punjab.

during the 1999 vaisakhi, sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the khalsa.

canada post honoured sikh canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the 300th anniversary of vaisakhi.

on april 9, 1999, indian president k.r.

narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the khalsa.

culture and religious observations daily routine from the guru granth sahib, one who calls himself a sikh of the guru, the true guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the lord's name.

upon arising early in the morning, he is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar.

following the instructions of the guru, he is to chant the name of the lord, har, har.

all sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased.

then, at the rising of the sun, he is to sing gurbani whether sitting down or standing up, he is to meditate on the lord's name.

one who meditates on my lord, har, har, with every breath and every morsel of food - that gursikh becomes pleasing to the guru's mind.

that person, unto whom my lord and master is kind and compassionate - upon that gursikh, the guru's teachings are bestowed.

servant nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that gursikh, who himself chants the naam, and inspires others to chant it.

five ks the five ks panj kakaar are five articles of faith which all baptized sikhs amritdhari sikhs are obliged to wear.

the symbols represent the ideals of sikhism honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on god and never bowing to tyranny.

the five symbols are kesh uncut hair, usually tied and wrapped in a dastar kanga a wooden comb, usually worn under a dastar kachera cotton undergarments, historically appropriate in battle due to increased mobility when compared to a dhoti.

worn by both sexes, the kachera is a symbol of chastity.

kara an iron bracelet, a weapon and a symbol of eternity kirpan an iron dagger in different sizes.

in the uk sikhs can wear a small dagger, but in the punjab they might wear a traditional curved sword from one to three feet in length.

music and instruments the sikhs have a number of musical instruments the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori and sarinda.

playing the sarangi was encouraged by guru hargobind.

the rebab was played by bhai mardana as he accompanied guru nanak on his journeys.

the jori and sarinda were introduced to sikh devotional music by guru arjan.

the taus was designed by guru hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds taus is the persian word for peacock .

the dilruba was designed by guru gobind singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus.

after japji sahib, all of the shabad in the guru granth sahib were composed as raags.

this type of singing is known as gurmat sangeet.

when they marched into battle, the sikhs would play a ranjit nagara victory drum to boost morale.

nagaras usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter are played with two sticks.

the beat of the large drums, and the raising of the nishan sahib, meant that the singhs were on their way.

demographics numbering about 27 million worldwide, sikhs make up 0.39 percent of the world population approximately 83 percent live in india.

about 76 percent of all sikhs live in the north indian state of punjab, where they form a majority about two-thirds of the population.

substantial communities of sikhs live in the indian states or union territories of chandigarh where they form 13% of the population, haryana more than 1.1 million , rajasthan, west bengal, uttar pradesh, delhi, maharashtra, uttarakhand, madhya pradesh, assam and jammu and kashmir.

sikh migration from british india began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the british completed their annexation of the punjab.

the british raj recruited sikhs for the indian civil service particularly the british indian army , which led to sikh migration throughout india and the british empire.

during the raj, semiskilled sikh artisans were transported from the punjab to british east africa to help build railroads.

sikhs emigrated from india after world war ii, most going to the united kingdom but many to north america.

some sikhs who had settled in eastern africa were expelled by ugandan dictator idi amin in 1972.

economics is a major factor in sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the united kingdom, the united states, malaysia, east africa, australia, singapore and thailand.

due to this canada is the country that has the highest number of sikhs in proportion to the population in the world at 2.1% of canada's total population.

although the rate of sikh migration from the punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of sikh migration favouring english-speaking countries particularly the united kingdom have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws.

moliner 2006 wrote that as a consequence of sikh migration to the uk "becom ing virtually impossible since the late 1970s", migration patterns evolved to continental europe.

italy is a rapidly growing destination for sikh migration, with reggio emilia and vicenza having significant sikh population clusters.

italian sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools and horticulture.

primarily for socio-economic reasons, indian sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in india, at 16.9 percent per decade estimated from 1991 to 2001 .

johnson and barrett 2004 estimate that the global sikh population increases annually by 392,633 1.7 percent per year, based on 2004 figures this percentage includes births, deaths and conversions.

castes guru nanak in sri granth sahib calls for treating everyone equal.

other sikh gurus also denounced the hierarchy of the caste system, however they all came from just one khatri caste.

despite that social stratification exists in the sikh community.

the bulk of the sikhs of punjab belong to the jat caste, which is a landowning rural caste.

despite being small in numbers, the mercantile khatri and arora castes wield considerable influence within the sikh community.

other sikh castes include the artisan castes ramgarhias, the ahluwalias formerly kalals brewers , and the two dalit castes, known in sikh terminology as the mazhabis and the ramdasias.

according to sunrinder s, jodhka, the sikh religion does not advocate discrimination against any caste or creed, however, in practice, sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the dalit castes.

while dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar communal meal .

therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the sikh dalits of punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy.

in 1953, sikh leader, master tara singh, succeeded in winning the demands from government to include sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes.

in the shiromani gurdwara prabandhak committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste sikhs.

according to a 1994 estimate, punjabis sikhs and non-sikhs comprised 10 to 15 percent of all ranks in the indian army, although the state contained less than 3% of the country's population.

the indian government does not release religious or ethnic origins of the military personnel, but a 1991 report by tim mcgirk estimated that 20 percent of indian army officers were sikhs.

apart from the gurkhas recruited from nepal, the maratha light infantry from maharashtra and the jat regiment, the sikhs remain the one community to have exclusive regiments in the indian army.

the sikh regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 battle honours, 14 victoria crosses, 21 first-class indian orders of merit equivalent to the victoria cross , 15 theatre honours, five coas unit citations, two param vir chakras, 14 maha vir chakras, five kirti chakras, 67 vir chakras and 1,596 other awards.

the highest-ranking general in the history of the indian air force is a punjabi sikh, marshal of the air force arjan singh.

plans by the united kingdom ministry of defence for a sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in june 2007.

historically, most indians have been farmers and 66 percent of the indian population are engaged in agriculture.

indian sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent india's 2001 census found 39 percent of the working population of the punjab employed in this sector.

the success of the 1960s green revolution, in which india went from "famine to plenty, from humiliation to dignity", was based in the punjab which became known as "the breadbasket of india" .

the punjab is the wealthiest indian state per capita, with the average punjabi income three times the national average.

the green revolution centred on indian farmers adopting more intensive and mechanised agricultural methods, aided by the electrification of the punjab, cooperative credit, consolidation of small holdings and the existing, british raj-developed canal system.

according to swedish political scientist ishtiaq ahmad, a factor in the success of the indian green revolution was the "sikh cultivator, often the jat, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial".

however, not all aspects of the green revolution were beneficial.

indian physicist vandana shiva wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for punjabi sikh and hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.

punjabi sikhs are engaged in a number of professions which include science, engineering and medicine.

notable examples are nuclear scientist piara singh gill who worked on the manhattan project , fibre-optics pioneer narinder singh kapany and physicist, science writer and broadcaster simon singh.

in business, the uk-based clothing retailers new look and the thai-based jaspal were founded by sikhs.

india's largest pharmaceutical company, ranbaxy laboratories, is headed by sikhs.

uk sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership 82 percent of any religious community.

uk sikhs are the second-wealthiest after the jewish community religious group in the uk, with a median total household wealth of ,000.

in singapore kartar singh thakral expanded his family's trading business, thakral holdings, into total assets of almost 1.4 billion and is singapore's 25th-richest person.

sikh bob singh dhillon is the first indo-canadian billionaire.

the sikh diaspora has been most successful in north america.

sikh intellectuals, sportsmen and artists include writer khushwant singh, england cricketer monty panesar, former 400m runner milkha singh, indian wrestler and actor dara singh, former indian hockey team captains ajitpal singh and balbir singh sr., former indian cricket captain bishen singh bedi, harbhajan singh india's most successful off spin cricket bowler , navjot singh sidhu former indian cricketer turned politician .

bollywood actresses include neetu singh, poonam dhillon, mahi gill, esha deol, parminder nagra, gul panag, mona singh, sunny leone, namrata singh gujral and director gurinder chadha, parminder gill .

sikhs have migrated worldwide, with a variety of occupations.

the sikh gurus preached ethnic and social harmony, and sikhs comprise a number of ethnic groups.

those with over 1,000 members include the ahluwalia, arain, arora, bhatra, bairagi, bania, basith, bawaria, bazigar, bhabra, chamar, chhimba, darzi, dhobi, gujar, jatt, jhinwar, kahar, kalal, kamboj, khatri, kumhar, labana, lohar, mahtam, mazhabi, megh, mirasi, mochi, mohyal, nai, rajput, ramgarhia, saini, sansi, sudh, tarkhan, kashyap rajput .

an order of punjabi sikhs, the nihang or the akalis, was formed during ranjit singh's time.

under their leader, akali phula singh, they won many battles for the sikh confederacy during the early 19th century.

in the indian and british armies sikhs supported the british during the indian rebellion of 1857.

by the beginning of world war i, sikhs in the british indian army totaled over 100,000 20 percent of the force .

until 1945 fourteen victoria crosses were awarded to sikhs, a per-capita regimental record.

in 2002 the names of all sikh vc and george cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the memorial gates on constitution hill, next to buckingham palace.

chanan singh dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.

during world war i, sikh battalions fought in egypt, palestine, mesopotamia, gallipoli and france.

six battalions of the sikh regiment were raised during world war ii, serving in the second battle of el alamein, the burma and italian campaigns and in iraq and receiving 27 battle honours.

around the world, sikhs are commemorated in commonwealth cemeteries.

in the last two world wars 83,005 turban wearing sikh soldiers were killed and 109,045 were wounded fighting for the british empire.

during shell fire, they had no other head protection but the turban, the symbol of their faith.

british people are highly indebted and obliged to sikhs for a long time.

i know that within this century we needed their help twice and they did help us very well.

as a result of their timely help, we are today able to live with honour, dignity, and independence.

in the war, they fought and died for us, wearing the turbans.

diaspora during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, sikhs began to emigrate to east africa, the far east, canada, the united states and the united kingdom.

in 1907 the khalsa diwan society was established in vancouver, and four years later the first gurdwara was established in london.

in 1912 the first gurdwara in the united states was founded in stockton, california.

since sikhs like many middle eastern men wear turbans and keep beards, some people in western countries have mistaken sikh men for muslim or arabic and afghan men since the september 11 attacks and the iraq war.

several days after the 9 11 attacks sikh balbir singh sodhi was murdered by frank roque, who thought sodhi was connected with al-qaeda.

cnn suggested an increase in hate crimes against sikh men in the united states and the uk after the 9 11 attacks.

since sikhism has never actively sought converts, the sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group.

the kundalini yoga-based activities of harbhajan singh yogi in his 3ho happy, healthy, holy organisation claim to have inspired a moderate growth in non-indian adherents of sikhism.

in 1998 an estimated 7,800 3ho sikhs, known colloquially as € or € sikhs, were mainly centred around , new mexico and los angeles, california.

sikhs and the sikh american legal defense and education fund overturned a 1925 oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials.

in an attempt to foster sikh leaders in the western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations exist.

the sikh youth alliance of north america sponsors an annual sikh youth symposium, a public-speaking and debate competition held in gurdwaras throughout the u.s. and canada.

there are a number of sikh office holders in canada.

in the united states, the current u.s.

ambassador to the united nations and former governor of south carolina, nikki haley, was born and raised as a sikh, but converted to christianity after her marriage.

she still actively attends both sikh and christian services.

sikh nationalism and the khalistan movement the khalistan movement is a sikh nationalist movement, which seeks to create a separate country called punjabi , "the land of the pure" in the punjab region of south asia.

the territorial definition of the proposed country ranges from the punjab state of india to the greater punjab region, including the neighbouring indian states.

the punjab region has been the traditional homeland for the sikhs.

before its conquest by the british it had been ruled by the sikhs for 82 years the sikh misls ruled over the entire punjab from 1767 to 1799, until their confederacy was unified into the sikh empire by maharajah ranjit singh.

however, the region also has a substantial number of hindus and muslims, and before 1947, the sikhs formed the largest religious group only in the ludhiana district of the british province.

when the muslim league demanded a separate country for muslims via the lahore resolution of 1940, a section of sikh leaders grew concerned that their community would be left without any homeland following the partition of india between the hindus and the muslims.

they put forward the idea of khalistan, envisaging it as a theocratic state covering a small part of the greater punjab region.

after the partition was announced, the majority of the sikhs migrated from the pakistani province of punjab to the indian province of punjab, which then included the parts of the present-day haryana and himachal pradesh.

following india's independence in 1947, the punjabi suba movement led by the akali dal aimed at creation of a punjabi-majority state suba in the punjab region of india in the 1950s.

concerned that creating a punjabi-majority state would effectively mean creating a sikh-majority state, the indian government initially rejected the demand.

after a series of protests, violent clampdowns on the sikhs, and the indo-pakistani war of 1965, the government finally agreed to partition the state, creating a new sikh-majority punjab state and splitting the rest of the region to the states of himachal pradesh, the new state haryana.

subsequently, the sikh leaders started demanding more autonomy for the states, alleging that the central government was discriminating against punjab.

although the akali dal explicitly opposed the demand for an independent sikh country, the issues raised by it were used as a premise for the creation of a separate country by the proponents of khalistan.

in 1971, the khalistan proponent jagjit singh chauhan travelled to the united states.

he placed an advertisement in the new york times proclaiming the formation of khalistan and was able to collect millions of dollars from the sikh diaspora.

on 12 april 1980, he held a meeting with the indian prime minister indira gandhi before declaring the formation of "national council of khalistan", at anandpur sahib.

he declared himself as the president of the council and balbir singh sandhu as its secretary general.

in may 1980, jagjit singh chauhan travelled to london and announced the formation of khalistan.

a similar announcement was made by balbir singh sandhu, in amritsar, who released stamps and currency of khalistan.

the inaction of the authorities in amritsar and elsewhere was decried by akali dal headed by the sikh leader harchand singh longowal as a political stunt by the congress i party of indira gandhi.

the khalistan movement reached its zenith in the 1970s and 1980s, flourishing in the indian state of punjab, which has a sikh-majority population and has been the traditional homeland of the sikh religion.

various pro-khalistan outfits have been involved in a separatist movement against the government of india ever since.

there are claims of funding from sikhs outside india to attract young people into these pro-khalistan militant groups.

in the 1980s, some of the khalistan proponents turned to militancy, resulting in counter-militancy operations by the indian security forces.

in one such operation, operation blue star june 1984 , the indian army led by the sikh general kuldip singh brar forcibly entered the harimandir sahib the golden temple to overpower the armed militants and the militant leader jarnail singh bhindranwale.

the handling of the operation, damage to the akal takht which is one of the five seats of temporal physical religious authority of the sikhs and loss of life on both sides, led to widespread criticism of the indian government.

many sikhs strongly maintain that the attack resulted in the desecration of the holiest sikh shrine.

the indian prime minister indira gandhi was assassinated by her two sikh bodyguards in retaliation.

following her death, thousands of sikhs were massacred in the 1984 anti-sikh riots in delhi, termed as a genocide by the congress activists and mobs.

in january 1986, the golden temple was occupied by militants belonging to all india sikh students federation and damdami taksal.

on 26 january 1986, the gathering passed a resolution favouring the creation of khalistan.

subsequently, a number of rebel militant groups in favour of khalistan waged a major insurgency against the government of india.

indian security forces suppressed the insurgency in the early 1990s, but sikh political groups such as the khalsa raj party and sad a continued to pursue an independent khalistan through non-violent means.

pro-khalistan organisations such as dal khalsa international are also active outside india, supported by a section of the sikh diaspora.

in november 2015, a sarbat khalsa, or congregation of the sikh community was called in response to recent unrest in the punjab region.

the sarbat khalsa adopted 13 resolutions to strengthen sikh institutions and traditions.

the 12th resolution reaffirmed the resolutions adopted by the sarbat khalsa in 1986, including the declaration of the sovereign state of khalistan.

art and culture sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of the punjab, and sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban dastar .

the punjab has been called india's melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures from the rivers from which the region gets its name.

sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures.

sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which s. s. bhatti described as "inspired by guru nanak's creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".

during the mughal and afghan persecution of the sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries, the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture.

with the rise of ranjit singh and the sikh raj in lahore and delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in the punjab hindus and sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.

the sikh confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely sikh form of expression, with ranjit singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas residential places and colleges in a sikh style.

sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters and square roofs.

a pinnacle of sikh style is harmandir sahib also known as the golden temple in amritsar.

sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs with the khanda the most obvious , and most sikh for the relics of the a military theme.

this theme is evident in the sikh festivals of hola mohalla and vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.

although the art and culture of the sikh diaspora have merged with that of other indo-immigrant groups into categories like "british asian", "indo-canadian" and "desi-culture", a minor cultural phenomenon which can be described as "political sikh" has arisen.

the art of diaspora sikhs like amarjeet kaur nandhra and amrit and rabindra kaur singh the "singh twins" is influenced by their sikhism and current affairs in the punjab.

bhangra and giddha are two forms of punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by sikhs.

punjabi sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in sikh culture becoming linked to bhangra although "bhangra is not a sikh institution but a punjabi one" .

painting sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the kangra school of painting.

in 1810, ranjeet singh occupied kangra fort and appointed sardar desa singh majithia his governor of the punjab hills.

in 1813 the sikh army occupied guler state, and raja bhup singh became a vassal of the sikhs.

with the sikh kingdom of lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the pahari painters from guler migrated to lahore for the patronage of maharaja ranjeet singh and his sardars.

the sikh school adapted kangra painting to sikh needs and ideals.

its main subjects are the ten sikh gurus and stories from guru nanak's janamsakhis.

the tenth guru, gobind singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices.

hunting scenes and portraits are also common in sikh painting.

see also list of sikhs list of sikh soldiers guru gobind singh mazhabi sikh ganga sagar urn turban training centre footnotes references and notes further reading the sikhs in history a millennium study by sangat singh, noel quinton king.

new york 1995.

isbn 81-900650-2-5 a history of the sikhs volume 1 by khushwant singh.

oxford india paperbacks 13 january 2005 .

isbn 0-19-567308-5 the sikhs by patwant singh.

image 17 july 2001 .

isbn 0-385-50206-0 the sikhs of the punjab by j. s. grewal.

published by cambridge university press 28 october 1998 .

isbn 0-521-63764-3.

the sikhs history, religion, and society by w.h.

mcleod.

published by columbia university press 15 april 1989 .

isbn 0-231-06815-8 the sikh diaspora tradition and change in an immigrant community asian americans reconceptualising culture, history, politics by michael angelo.

published by routledge 1 september 1997 .

isbn 0-8153-2985-7 glory of sikhism by r. m. chopra, sanbun publishers, 2001, oclc 499896556, glory of sikhism at google books.

the philosophical and religious thought of sikhism by r. m. chopra, 2014, sparrow publication, kolkata, isbn 978-81-89140-99-1 the construction of religious boundaries culture, identity, and diversity in the sikh tradition - h oberoi - 1994 university of chicago press, isbn 0-226-61592-8 "architectural heritage of a sikh state faridkot" by subhash parihar, delhi aryan books international, 2009, isbn 978-81-7305-386-3 "a study of religions" by r. m. chopra, anuradha prakashan, new delhi, 2015.

isbn 978-93-82339-94-6.

external links discoversikhism.com site covering a range of sikh topics, beliefs and the sikh way of life sikhs.org general resource site introducing the main concepts of sikhism the bbc page on sikhism sikhphilosophy.net interactive resource on sikh philosoph sikh-history.com panj pyare punjabi , pi' “, literally the five beloved ones , is the name collectively given to the five sikh men, bhai daya singh ji, bhai dharam singh ji, bhai himmat singh ji, bhai mohkam singh ji and bhai sahib singh ji by guru gobind singh ji at the historic divan at anandpur sahib on 14th april 1699.

they formed the nucleus of the khalsa, as the first batch to receive khanda di pahul, i.e.

rites of the two-edged sword.

in sikh theology, as in the south asian classical tradition generally, panj or paanch , i.e.

the numeral five, has a special significance.

guru nanak in japji sahib refers to five khands, i.e.

stages or steps in spiritual development, and calls a spiritually awakened person a panch.

the ancient south asian socio-political institution panchayat meant a council of five elders.

something like an inner council of five existed even in the time of the earlier gurus five sikhs accompanied guru arjan on his last journey to lahore the five were each given 100 armed sikhs to command by his successor, guru hargobind guru tegh bahadur, set out on his journey to delhi to court execution attended by five sikhs.

until the baisakhi of ad 1699, sikh initiation ceremony, charan pahul, comprised the administering of charanamrit or charanodak to the novitiate.

as bhai gurdas ji, varan, i.23, records, this was the practice guru nanak dev ji introduced for the sikhs.

at the ceremony the novitiate quaffed water poured over the foot of the guru and vowed to follow the religious and moral injunctions as well as the code of communal conduct laid down.

later, masands or local leaders, specially authorized by the gurus, also administered charan pahul.

according to kesar singh chhibbar, bansavalinama, a modification was introduced in the time of guru hargobind when water, poured over the toe of the right foot of each of the five chosen sikhs assembled in a dharamsal, was received in a bowl and administered to the seekers after ardas or supplicatory prayer.

the calling of 5 volunteers guru gobind singh ji, who had abolished the institution of masands replaced charan pahul with khanda di pahul.

he summoned a special assembly in the keshgarh fort at anandpur on the baisakhi day of 1756 bk 30 march 1699.

after the morning devotions and kirtan, he suddenly stood up, drawn sword in hand, and, to quote bhai santokh singh, sri gur pratap suraj granth, spoke entire sangat is very dear to me but is there a devoted sikh who will give his head to me here and now?

a need has arisen at this moment which calls for a head.

a hush fell over the assembly.

daya ram, a khatri of lahore, arose and offered himself.

he walked behind the guru to a tent near by.

guru gobind singh returned with his sword dripping blood and demanded another head.

the guru again asked for another head, this time dharam singh, a jat from hastinapur, presented himself to the guru.

guru gobind singh gave three more calls.

mohkam chand, a calico printer tailor from dwarka, himmat rai, a water-bearer from jagannath puri, and sahib chand, a barber from bidar, stood up one after another and advanced to offer their heads.

some sources provide native places of "five loved-ones" as - daya ram, a khatri of the village of dall in the lahore district dharam das, a jat of the village of jatwara in the saharanpur district sahib chand, a barber of the village of nangal shahidan in the hoshiarpur district himmat chand, kahar of sangatpura in the patiala district and mohkam chand chhimba, of buriya in the ambala district guru sahib emerges guru gobind singh ji emerged from the tent in hand with the , says kuir singh, gurbilas patshahi 10.

the disciples wore saffron-coloured raiment topped over with neatly tied turbans of the same colour.

guru gobind singh, similarly dressed, introduced his chosen sikhs to the audience as panj pyare, the five devoted spirits beloved of the guru.

he then proceeded to perform the ceremony.

filling an iron bowl with clean water, he kept churning it with a khanda, i.e.

double-edged sword, while reciting over it the sacred verses.

guru gobind wife mata jitoji, brought sugar crystals which were put into the vessel at the bidding.

sweetness was thus mingled with the alchemy of iron.

amrit, the nectar of immortality, was now ready and guru gobind singh gave the five sikhs each five palmsful of it to drink.

at the end, all five of them quaffed from the steel bowl the remaining elixir binding themselves in new fraternal ties.

their rebirth into this brotherhood meant the cancellation of their previous family ties, of the occupations which had hitherto determined their place in society, of their beliefs and creeds and of the rituals they had so far observed.

the five sikhs formed the nucleus of the self-abnegating, martial and casteless fellowship of the khalsa guru gobind singh ji had brought into being.

they were given the surname of singh, meaning lion, and were ever to wear the five emblems of the khalsa kesh or unshorn hair and beard kangha, a comb in the kesh to keep it tidy as against the recluses who kept it matted in token of their having renounced the world kara, a steel bracelet kaccha, short breeches worn by soldiers and kirpan, a sword.

they were enjoined to succour the helpless and fight the oppressor, to have faith in one god and to consider all human beings equal, irrespective of caste and creed.

the five different castes the episode of sis-bhet, i.e.

offering of the heads was recorded by bhai kuir singh in his gurbilas patshahi 10 1751 followed by bhai sukkha singh, bhai santokh singh, and others.

earlier chronicles such as the sri gur sobha, and the bansavalinama do not narrate it in such detail.

ratan singh bhangu, prachin panth prakash, simply says that sikhs were selected, one each from the five castes, that they had received instruction at the hands of guru gobind singh, was a devoted disciple and had been in residence at anandpur long enough to have been affected by its ambience of faith and sacrifice.

as they volunteered individually it was a coincidence that they belonged to different castes and to different parts of india.

khanda di pahul, introduced by guru gobind singh on 30 march 1699, became the established form of initiation for sikhs for all time to come so also the institution of the panj pyare.

in fact, guru gobind singh had himself been initiated by the panj pyare as he had initiated them.

since then this has been the custom.

panj pyare, any five initiated sikhs reputed to be strictly following the rahit, or sikh discipline, are chosen to administer to the novitiates amrit, i.e.

khanda di pahul.

panj pyare are similarly chosen to perform other important ceremonies such as laying the cornerstone of a gurdwara building or inaugurating kar-seva, i.e.

cleansing by voluntary labour of a sacred tank, or leading a religious procession, and to decide issues confronting a local sangat or community as a whole.

at crucial moments of history, panj pyare have collectively acted as supreme authority, representing the guru-panth.

during the battle of chamkaur, it was the last five surviving sikhs who, constituting themselves into the council of five, panj pyare, commanded guru gobind singh to leave the fortress and save himself to reassemble the sikhs.

guru gobind singh had abolished the masand system and before he died, he also ended the line of living gurus.

in the institution of panj pyare, he had created the nucleus of a casteless and democratic continuing society.

bibliography see concepts in sikhism gurdas, bhai, varan jaggi, rattan singh, ed., bansavalinama.

chandigarh, 1972 kuir singh, gurbilas patshahi 10.

patiala, 1968 bhangu, ratan singh, prachin panth prakash.

amritsar, 1962 santokh singh, bhai, sri gur pratap suraj granth, amritsar, bhalla, sarup das, mahima prakash.

gian singh, giani, panth prakash, patiala, 1970 sukha singh, gurbilas dasvin patshahi, patiala, 1970 story of vasakhi guru gobind rai ji was 33 years old when he had divine inspiration to actuate his designs and make an undying legacy.

every year at the time of baisakhi springtime , thousands of devotees would come to anandpur to pay their obeisance and seek the guru's blessings.

in early 1699, months before baisakhi day, guru gobind rai sent special edicts to congregants far and wide that that year the baisakhi was going to be a unique affair.

he asked them not to cut any of their come with unshorn hair under their turbans and chunis, and for the men to come with full beards.

on baisakhi day, march 30, 1699, hundreds of thousands of people gathered around his divine temporal seat at anandpur sahib.

the guru addressed the congregants with a most stirring oration on his divine mission of restoring their faith and preserving the sikh religion.

after his inspirational discourse, he flashed his unsheathed sword and said that every great deed was preceded by equally great sacrifice he demanded one head for oblation.

"i need a head", he declared.

after some trepidation one person offered himself.

the guru took him inside a tent.

a little later he reappeared with his sword dripping with blood, and asked for another head.

one by one, four more earnest devotees offered their heads.

every time the guru took a person inside the tent, he came out with a bloodied sword in his hand.

thinking their guru to have gone berserk, the congregants started to disperse.

then the guru emerged with all five men dressed in orange suits with a blue bib.

these are the colors of sikhism .

he baptized the five in a new and unique ceremony called pahul, what sikhs today know as the baptism ceremony called amrit.

then the guru asked those five baptized sikhs to baptize him as well.

this is how he became known as guru chela both teacher and student.

he then proclaimed that the panj five beloved be the embodiment of the guru himself "where there are panj pyare, there am i.

when the five meet, they are the holiest of the holy."

he said whenever and wherever five baptized amritdhari sikhs come together, the guru would be present.

all those who receive amrit from five baptized sikhs will be infused with the spirit of courage and strength to sacrifice.

thus with these principles he established panth khalsa, the order of the pure ones.

unique identity at the same time the guru gave his new khalsa a unique, indisputable, and distinct identity.

the guru gave the gift of bana, the distinctive sikh clothing and headwear.

he also offered five emblems of purity and courage.

these symbols, worn by all baptized sikhs of both sexes, are popularly known today as five ks kesh, unshorn hair this a gift from god.

kangha, the wooden comb it keeps the tangles out of sikhs hair which shows that god keeps the tangles out of your life.

kara, the iron or steel bracelet which has no beginning or end which shows that god has no beginning or end.

kirpan, the sword you only use it to defend others weaker than you.

you don't hurt anyone.

and kashera, the underwear worn by sikhs in battle so they can move freely.

by being identifiable, no sikh could never hide behind cowardice again.

political tyranny was not the only circumstance that was lowering people's morale.

discriminatory class distinctions --the indian "caste" system-- promoted by hindu brahmins were responsible for the people's sense of degradation.

the guru wanted to eliminate the anomalies caused by the caste system.

the constitution of the panj pyare was the living example of his dream both the high and low castes were amalgamated into one.

among the original panj pyare, there was one khatri, shopkeeper one jat, farmer one chhimba, calico printer tailor one ghumar, water-carrier and one nai, a barber.

the guru gave the surname of singh lion to every sikh and also took the name for himself.

from guru gobind rai he became guru gobind singh.

he also pronounced that all sikh women embody royalty, and gave them the surname kaur princess .

with the distinct khalsa identity and consciousness of purity guru gobind singh gave all sikhs the opportunity to live lives of courage, sacrifice, and equality.

the birth of the khalsa is celebrated by sikhs every baisakhi day on april 13.

baisakhi 1999 marks the 300th anniversary of guru gobind singh's gift of panth khalsa to all sikhs everywhere.

references singh, patwant 1989 .

the golden temple.

south asia books.

isbn 962-7375-01-2.

punjabi gurmukhi is a type of upbeat popular music associated with punjabi culture.

it was later developed in england starting in the 1970s by people from the punjab region of india and pakistan.

history origins the roots of modern bhangra music date back to the early 1980s, when several punjabi bands started experimenting with western styles as well as traditional punjabi music.

significant amongst these were 'the black mist', 'the shots', 'the jambo boys', and 'the saathies'.

however, the first recording artist group of this type of music in the uk was bhujhangy group, founded by brothers balbir singh khanpur and dalbir singh khanpur in birmingham in 1967.

bhujhangy group's first major hit was "bhabiye akh larr gayee" in the early 1970s, released on birmingham's oriental star agencies label.

this was the first song to combine traditional asian music with modern western instruments, which would be followed by further developments of this in bhangra.

united kingdom 1970s bhangra music was said to rise in britain in the 1970s by punjabi immigrants who took their native folk music and began experimenting by altering it using instruments from their host country.

the new genre quickly became popular in britain replacing punjabi folk singers due to it being heavily influenced in britain by the infusion of rock music and a need to move away from the simple and repetitive punjabi folk music.

it indicated the development of a self-conscious and distinctively rebellious british asian youth culture centred on an experiential sense of self, e.g., language, gesture, bodily signification, desires, etc., in a situation in which tensions with british culture and racist elements in british society had resulted in alienation in many minority ethnic groups, fostered a sense of need for an affirmation of a positive identity and culture, and provided a platform for british punjabi males to assert their masculinity.

in the 1980s, distributed by record labels such as multitone records, bhangra artists were selling over 30,000 cassettes a week in the uk, but no artists reached the top 40 uk chart despite these artists outselling popular british ones most of the bhangra cassette sales were not through the large uk record stores, whose sales were those recorded by the official uk charts company for creating their rankings.

the group alaap formed in 1977 co-founded by channi singh and harjeet gandhi both hail from southall, a punjabi area in london.

their album teri chunni de sitaray was released in 1982 by multitone.

alaap was considered the first and original superstar bhangra band formed in the united kingdom.

channi singh has been awarded the obe by the british queen for his services to bhangra music and services charity for the british asian community.

co-founder harjeet gandhi died in 2003.

the 1980s is commonly known as the golden age, or the age of bhangra music, which lasted roughly from 1985 to 1993.

the primary emphasis during these times was on the melody riff, played out usually on a synthesizer, harmonium, accordion or a guitar.

the folk instruments were rarely used.

one of the biggest bhangra stars of the last several decades is malkit singh and his band golden star.

singh was born in june 1963 in the village of hussainpur in punjab.

he attended the lyallpur khalsa college, jalandhar, in punjab in 1980 to study for a bachelor of arts degree.

there he met his mentor, professor inderjit singh, who taught him punjabi folk singing and bhangra dancing.

due to singh's tutelage, malkit entered and won song contests during this time.

in 1983, he won a gold medal at the guru nanak dev university in amritsar, punjab, for performing his song "gurh nalon ishq mitha", which later featured on his first album, nach gidhe wich, released in 1984.

this album was created with the assistance of bhangra musician, tarlochan singh bilga.

the band has toured 27 countries.

malkit has been awarded the mbe by the british queen for his services to bhangra music.

bhangra boy band, the sahotas, composed of five brothers from wolverhampton.

their music is a fusion of bhangra, rock and dance.

heera, formed by bhupinder bhindi and fronted by kumar and dhami, was one of the most popular bands of the 1980s.

the group established itself with the albums jag wala mela, produced by kuljit bhamra, and diamonds from heera, produced by deepak khazanchi, on arishma records.

these albums are notable for being amongst the first bhangra albums to mix punjabi drums and punjabi synthesizers with traditional british instruments successfully.

bands like alaap and heera incorporated rock-influenced beats into bhangra, because it enabled "asian youth to affirm their identities positively" within the broader environment of alternative rock as an alternative way of expression.

however, some believe that the progression of bhangra music created an "intermezzo culture" post-india's partition, within the unitary definitions of southeast asians within the diaspora, thus "establishing a brand new community in their home away from home".

several other influential groups appeared around the same time, including the saathies, premi group, bhujungy group, and apna sangeet.

apna sangeet, best known for their hit "mera yaar vajavey dhol", re-formed for charity in may 2009 after a break-up.

when bhangra and general indian sounds and lyrics were combined, british-asian artists began incorporating them in their music.

some asian artists, such as bally sagoo, talvin singh, badmarsh, black star liner are creating their own form of british hip-hop.

this era also brought about bhangra art, which, like the bhangra music it represented was rebellious.

unlike folk music art, which consisted of a picture of the folk singer, bhangra recordings had details such as distinctive artwork, logos, clever album names and band musician listings who played what .

folk backlash in the mid 1990s, however, many artists returned to the original, traditional folk beats away from bhangra music, often incorporating more dhol drum beats and tumbi.

this time also saw the rise of several young punjabi folk singers as a backlash to bhangra music.

they were aided by djs who mixed hip hop samples with folk singing.

beginning around 1994, there was a trend towards the use of samples often sampled from mainstream hip hop mixed with traditional folk rhythm instruments, such as the tumbi and dhol.

using folk instruments and hip-hop samples, along with relatively inexpensive folk vocals imported from punjab, punjabi folk music was able to cause the decline of bhangra music.

pioneering djs instrumental in the decline of bhangra were bally sagoo and panjabi mc.

as djs who were initially hired by bhangra labels to remix the original recordings on the label's roster osa and nachural respectively , they along with the record labels quickly found that remixing folk singers from india was much cheaper than working with outsourced bhangra bands.

a pioneering folk singer that was instrumental in bhangra's demise was jazzy b, who debuted in 1992.

having sold over 55,000 copies of his third album, folk and funky, he is now one of the best-selling punjabi folk artists in the world, with a vocal style likened to that of kuldip manak.

other influential folk artists include surinder shinda - famous for his "putt jattan de" - harbhajan mann, manmohan waris, meshi eshara, sarbjit cheema, hans raj hans, sardool sikander, anakhi, sat rang, xlnc, b21, shaktee, sahara, paaras, pdm, amar group, sangeet group, and bombay talkie.

a dj to rise to stardom with many successful hits was panjabi mc.

by the end of the 1990s, bhangra music had largely declined and been replaced with punjabi folk singers.

the same folk singers bhangra bands had replaced a decade earlier were being utilized by djs to make relatively inexpensive non live music on laptops.

this "folkhop" genre was short lived as records could not be officially released due to non clearance copyrights on samples used to create the "beat".

this continued until the end of the century.

folkhop record labels such hi tech were investigated by bpi british phonographic industry for copyright infringement by way of uncleared samples on releases by folk djs such as dj sanj.

toward the end of the decade, bhangra continued to decline, with folkhop artists such as bally sagoo and apache indian signing with international recording labels sony and island.

moreover, multitone records, one of the major recording labels associated with bhangra in britain in the 1980s and 1990s, was bought by bmg.

a recent pepsi commercial launched in britain featured south asian actors and punjabi folk music.

2000s remixes punjabi folk remixed with hip hop, known as folkhop, is most often produced when folk vocals are purchased online to be remixed in a studio.

folk vocals are usually sung to traditional melodies, that are often repeated with new lyrics.

some south asian djs, especially in america, have mixed punjabi folk music with house, reggae, and hip-hop to add a different flavor to punjabi folk.

these remixes continued to gain popularity as the 1990s came to an end.

this movement was established and proliferated by djs such as punjabi mc and dj rekha.

dj rekha, originally from the uk, now resides in new york city running a club event series called basement bhangra.

these monthly events exhibit house and hip hop bhangra remixes.

a notable remix artist is bally sagoo, a punjabi-sikh, anglo-indian raised in birmingham, england.

sagoo described his music as "a bit of tablas, a bit of the indian sound.

but bring on the bass lines, bring on the funky-drummer beat, bring on the james brown samples", to time magazine in 1997.

he was recently signed by sony.

daler mehndi, a punjabi singer from india has a type of music known as "folk pop".

mehndi has released tracks such as "bolo ta ra ra" and "ho jayegee balle balle".

his song "tunak tunak tun" was released in 1998.

canada & the united states punjabi immigrants have encouraged the growth of punjabi folk music in the western hemisphere rather than bhangra music.

the bhangra industry has grown in north america much less than in the united kingdom.

indian lion, a canadian folk artist explains what he thinks has caused this the reason there's a lot of bands in england is because there's a lot of work in england.

in england the tradition that's been going on for years now is that there's weddings happening up and down the country every weekend, and it's part of the culture that they have bhangra bands come and play, who get paid 1800 quid a shot, you know.

most of the bands are booked up for the next two years.

and england is a country where you can wake up in the morning and by lunchtime you can be at the other end of the country, it helps.

in canada it takes 3 days to get to the other side of the country, so there's no circuit there.

and it isn't a tradition to have live music at weddings.

there are a few bands here that play a few gigs, but nothing major.

north american non bhangra folk artists such as manmohan waris, jazzy bains, kamal heer, harbhajan mann, sarabjit cheema, and debi makhsoospuri have emerged and the remix market has grown.

in 2001, punjabi folk, and its hip-hop form, folkhop, began to exert an influence over us r&b music, when missy elliott released the folkhop-influenced song "get ur freak on".

in 2003, punjabi mc's "mundian to bach ke" "beware of the boys" was covered by the u.s. rapper jay-z.

additionally, american rapper pras of the fugees has recorded tracks with british alternative bhangra band swami.

american singer and actress selena gomez released her bhangra single come & get it from her first solo album stars dance in 2013.

australian singer and songwriter sia released her bhangra single cheap thrills from her seventh studio album this is acting in 2016.

lyrics bhangra lyrics, which generally cover social issues or love, are sung in punjabi.

bhangra lyrics were generally kept deliberately simple by the creators of the genre because the youth did not understand complex lyrics.

traditional punjabi folk lyrics are generally more complex and often tell the tales of punjabi history.

there are many bhangra songs devoted to punjabi pride themes and punjabi heroes.

the lyrics are tributes to the cultural traditions of punjab.

in particular, many bhangra tracks have been written about udham singh and bhagat singh.

less serious topics include beautiful women with their colourful duppattas.

lyrics can also be about crops and the coming of a new season.

bhangra is sung fiercely with strong lyrics often yelling "balle balle" or "chakde phate", which refer to celebration and or pride.

notable bhangra or punjabi lyricists include harbans jandu jandu littranwala "giddhian di rani" and rattan reehal rurki wala rattan .

instruments punjabi instruments contribute to bhangra.

originally this was primarily the dhol.

the 20th century has brought changes to the instruments that define bhangra, to include the tumbi, sarangi, dholak smaller than the dhol , flute, zither, fiddle, harmonium, tabla, guitar, mandolin, saxophone, synthesizer, drum set, and other western instruments.

the string instruments include the guitar both acoustic and electrical , bass, oud, sitar, tumbi, violin and sarangi.

the snare, toms, dhadd, dafli, dholki, and damru are the other drums.

the tumbi, originally played by folk artists such as lalchand yamla jatt and kuldip manak in true folk recordings and then notably used by chamkila, a punjabi folk not bhangra singer, is a high-tone, single-string instrument.

percussion bhangra today has developed into a largely beat-based music genre, unlike before 1994, when it was slightly more mellow and classical.

pandit dinesh and kuljit bhamra were trained exponents of indian percussion and helped create the current british music, mainly with tabla and dholki for bands like alaap and heera.

15-year-old percussionist bhupinder singh kullar, a.k.a.

tubsy, of handsworth, birmingham, created a more contemporary style and groove that seemed to fuse more naturally with western music.

songs such as "dhola veh dhola" satrang and albums such as bomb the tumbi safri boyz contained this new style.

sunil kalyan of southall, london, was a session musician on many songs and albums, playing the tabla.

sukhshinder shinda later introduced his style of dhol playing with the album dhol beat.

he added a very clean style of dhol playing and helped create the sound for artists such as jaswinder singh bains and bhinda jatt.

another notable percussionist was parvinder bharat parv of wolverhampton.

parv had played for many bhangra bands from the 80's, playing with bands such as, satrang, pardesi and then eventually joining the internationally acclaimed dcs.

after leaving dcs, parv continued to experiment with his art which resulted in a european tour with none other than the legend that is stevie wonder.

cultural impact and resurgence of punjabi folk music in the west the third and fourth generation are generally unable to speak punjabi if their parents could hardly speak it.

there is a move towards punjabi folk music which is the purest form of punjabi music.

much of the youth struggle to understand the lyrics, although, there are some children and young adults who have maintained their folk roots.

another reason why some fans express an anti-folk sentiment is because many folk songs were written about sikh jatts whereas other punjabi sikhs were not jatt, so they disapproved of punjabi folk music.

however, today with artists like tru-skool, jazzy b, pmc, sukhshinder shinda, surinder shinda, pappi gill, nachattar gill, pammi bai and diljit dosanjh, punjabi folk has increased in popularity although it is fused in some cases.

itunes has catalogs of many punjabi folk singers available.

see also music of the united kingdom asian underground multitone records list of bhangra artists dhol music of punjab punjab region punjabi culture folkhop references external links where bhangra lives bhangra news, music videos & interviews www.bhangra.org house of bhangra real bhangra punjabi video songs india music - the first ever indian music domain and web site registered.

the true jesus church is a christian church that originated in china during the pentecostal movement in the early twentieth century.

the tjc is currently one of the largest christian groups in china and taiwan, as well as the largest non-denominational church in the world.

history denomination independent established 1917 founder the lord jesus christ membership 1.5 million in 60 countries essential doctrines one true god, salvation, water baptism, baptism of the holy spirit, washing of feet, holy communion, sabbath saturday , and christ's second coming the history of the true jesus church origin the true jesus church was established in 1917 in beijing, china.

the early workers, having received the holy spirit and revelation of the true gospel, began preaching the truth of salvation to every province of china.

the power of god manifested mightily through the presence of the holy spirit and through accompanying signs and miracles.

development in asia the gospel spread to taiwan in 1926 and rapidly to other parts of asia and the pacific.

under guidance, the church developed rapidly throughout asia and became one of the largest christian churches in taiwan.

development in other continents starting in the , churches were established in north america, europe, and australia.

and under the continued guidance of the lord, the gospel has also reached africa, central and south america, and russia.

outlook the lord jesus commissioned his disciples to proclaim the gospel to every nation mark 16 15-16 and to attend to the spiritual needs of all believers in the church jn 21 15-17 .

we pray that the power and the guidance of the holy spirit will enable us to fulfill these commissions.

we will continue to expand this ministry by reaching out to all people.

through prayer, studying the scriptures and mutual encouragement, we strive to deepen the relationship with the lord.

ultimately, the church may present herself holy and pure to the lord.

why € jesus church?

the god we worship is the true god thus his church is the true church.

the lord jesus called himself the true vine.

the church, which is his body, is therefore called the true church.

the true church preaches the true and complete gospel, which is confirmed by the holy spirit, signs, and miracles.

references 1 jn 5 20 jn 15 1,5 17 3 current organization auckland in auckland there are only two churches, auckland and east auckland.

even though the number of churches are small, there are many church members.

mainland china in mainland china most of the true jesus church congregations are members of the three-self patriotic movement, and usually meet on saturdays in tspm church buildings as separate sabbatarian sub-congregations.

however, since tjc practices such as healing and tongues are "frowned upon" in the tspm other congregations are independent chinese house churches.

taiwan and the united states outside china member churches of the tjc look to the central synod of the tjc in california.

in 1967 tjc church leaders from outside mainland china met for the first world delegates conference in taiwan, and an international headquarters was established in taichung, taiwan, where a seminary was opened.

the headquarters was subsequently moved to california in 1985.

united kingdom in the united kingdom, true jesus church congregations were established as a result of immigration patterns in the 1960s and 1970s, coming largely from malaysia and hong kong, the latter especially from ap chau.

this would result in a number of congregations being established throughout the country, particularly in northern england and scotland, such as leicester, newcastle, sunderland, elgin, and edinburgh.

beliefs practices the church practices baptism for both adults and infants, with holy communion.

speaking in tongues is practiced and usually occurs while in prayer.

the church believes that the sacraments must fulfill three requirements according to the scripture.

firstly, they must have been performed by jesus christ himself as an example.

secondly, the sacraments must be directly related to one's salvation, eternal life, entering the heavenly kingdom, and having a part with jesus.

lastly, they must be of the sacraments which jesus christ instructed the disciples to perform as well.

there are ten essential doctrines and beliefs that the true jesus church believe in order to worship god correctly.

according to them, one must speak in tongues as evidence of having the holy spirit the mode of baptism also determines salvation.

the correct mode should be with the head facing down in the manner of jesus' death and only in natural "living" water.

references external links true jesus church official website true jesus church china general assembly true jesus church united states general assembly true jesus church united kingdom general assembly giddha punjabi , is a popular folk dance of women in punjab region of india and pakistan.

the dance is often considered derived from the ancient dance known as the ring dance and is just as energetic as bhangra at the same time it manages to creatively display feminine grace, elegance and flexibilty.

it is a very colourful dance form which is now copied in all regions of the country.

women perform this dance mainly at festive or social occasions.

references the akal takht punjabi , meaning throne of the timeless one, is one of five takhts seats of power of the sikh religion.

it is located in the harmandir sahib golden temple complex in amritsar, panjab, about 290 miles 470 km northwest of new delhi.

the akal takht was built by guru hargobind as a place of justice and consideration of temporal issues the highest seat of earthly authority of the khalsa the collective body of the sikhs and the place of the jathedar, the highest spokesman of the sikh nation.

the current jathedar of akal takht is giani gurbachan singh.

history originally known as akal bunga, the building directly opposite the harmandir sahib was founded by sixth sikh guru, guru hargobind, as a symbol of political sovereignty and where spiritual and temporal concerns of the sikh people could be addressed.

along with baba buddha and bhai gurdas, the sixth sikh guru built a 9 foot high concrete slab.

when guru hargobind revealed the platform on 15 june 1606, he put on two swords one indicated his spiritual authority piri and the other, his temporal authority miri .

in the 18th century, ahmed shah abdali and massa rangar led a series of attacks on the akal takht and harmandir sahib.

hari singh nalwa, a general of ranjit singh, the maharaja, decorated the akhal takht with gold.

on 4 june 1984, the akal takht was damaged when the indian army stormed harmandir sahib during operation blue star.

design the akal takht was built on a site where there existed only a high mound of earth across a wide open space.

it was a place where hargobind played as a child.

the original takht was a simple platform, 3.5 metres 11 ft high, on which guru hargobind would sit in court to receive petitions and administer justice.

he was surrounded by insignia of royalty such as the parasol and the flywhisk.

later, there was an open-air semi-circular structure built on marble pillars and a gilded interior section.

there were also painted wall panels depicting europeans.

the modern building is a five story structure with marble inlay and a gold-leafed dome.

three of the stories were added by ranjit singh in the 1700s.

contemporary restoration work found a layer of paint decorated lime plaster that might have been part of the original structure but later than the time of harminder.

operation blue star between 3 june and 8 june 1984, the indian army conducted an operation, ordered by prime minister indira gandhi in order to establish control over the harmandir sahib complex in amritsar, punjab, and remove jarnail singh bhindranwale the jathedar of the akal takht and his followers from the complex buildings.

in the process, many other sikh gurdwaras were destroyed.

re-building the indian government began to rebuild the akal takht.

sikhs called the new structure the sarkari takht the word sarkar in hindi and punjabi means "government" to indicate it had been built by the government and was not akal sacred .

the sikh home minister, buta singh, was excommunicated for his role in building the new takht.

he was accepted back into the community after a period of penitence cleaning the devotees's utensils and shoes at the golden temple .

in 1986, the sikh nation called the 'sarbat khalsa' sikh commonwealth in which it declared khalistan as the homeland of the sikhs and also moved to rebuild akal takht that had been repaired by the indian government.

in 1986, sikhs at amritsar decided to demolish the sarkari takht and build a new akal takht through the sikh tradition of kar seva and self-service.

in 1995, a new, larger takht was completed.

see also jathedar of akal takht references sources harjinder singh dilgeer the akal takht, sikh university press, 1980.

harjinder singh dilgeer sikh twareekh vich akal takht sahib da role, sikh university press 2005.

harjinder singh dilgeer akal takht sahib, concept and role, sikh university press 2005.

harjinder singh dilgeer sikh twareekh, sikh university press 2008.

mohinder singh josh akal takht tay is da jathedar 2005.

darshi a. r. the gallant defender singh p. the golden temple.

south asia books 1989.

isbn 978-962-7375-01-2.

singh k. ed.

new insights into sikh art.

marg publications.

2003 .

isbn 978-81-85026-60-2.

nomination of sri harimandir sahib for inclusion on the unesco world heritage list vol.1 nomination dossier, india 2003.

macauliffe, m. a.

the sikh religion its gurus sacred writings and authors low price publications, 1903.

isbn 978-81-7536-132-4.

external links worldgurudwara.com akal takht, amritsar established in 1606 takht sri darbar sahib akal takht shri akaal takhat images pash or paash september 9, 1950 march 23, 1988 was the pen name of avtar singh sandhu, one of the major poets of the naxalite movement in the punjabi literature of the 1970s.

he was killed by khalistani extremists on march 23, 1988.

his strongly left-wing views were reflected in his poetry.

early life and activism he was born in talwandi salem, jalandhar, punjab, growing up in the midst of the naxalite movement, a revolutionary movement waged in punjab against the landlords, industrialists, traders, etc.

who control the means of production.

he published his first book of revolutionary poems, loh-katha iron tale , in 1970.

his militant and provocative tone raised the ire of the establishment and a murder charge was brought against him.

he spent nearly two years in jail, before being finally acquitted.

on acquittal, he became involved in punjab's maoist front, editing a literary magazine, siarh the plow line .

he became a popular political figure on the left during this period, and was awarded a fellowship at the punjabi academy of letters in 1985.

he toured the united kingdom and the united states the following year while in the u.s., he became involved with the anti-47 front, opposing sikh extremist violence.

death in the beginning of 1988 pash was in punjab for the renewal of his visa from the united states.

a day before leaving for delhi, however, he was gunned down by khalistani militants along with his friend hans raj on the well in his village on march 23, 1988.

literary works loh-katha iron-tale 1970 , uddian bazan magar following the flying hawks 1973 , saadey samiyaan vich in our times 1978 , and khilre hoye varkey scattered pages 1989 khilre hoey varkey was posthumously published in 1989 after his death, followed by his journals and letters.

a selection of his poems in punjabi, inkar, was published in lahore in 1997.

his poems have been translated in many languages including other indian languages, nepali and english.

references external links pash's poetry pash by tejwant singh gill the bible from koine greek , , "the books" is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that jews and christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between god and humans.

many different authors contributed to the bible.

and what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups a number of bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents.

the christian old testament overlaps with the hebrew bible and the greek septuagint the hebrew bible is known in judaism as the tanakh.

the new testament is a collection of writings by early christians, believed to be mostly jewish disciples of christ, written in first-century koine greek.

these early christian greek writings consist of narratives, letters, and apocalyptic writings.

among christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect.

attitudes towards the bible also differ amongst christian groups.

roman catholics, anglicans and eastern orthodox christians stress the harmony and importance of the bible and sacred tradition, while protestant churches focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone.

this concept arose during the protestant reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the bible as the only source of christian teaching.

with estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the bible is widely considered to be the best-selling book of all time.

it has estimated annual sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the west where the gutenberg bible was the first mass-printed book.

the bible was the first book ever printed using movable type.

etymology the english word bible is from the latin biblia, from the same word in medieval latin and late latin and ultimately from koine greek ta biblia "the books" singular biblion .

medieval latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book", while biblia in greek and late latin is neuter plural gen. bibliorum .

it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun biblia, gen. bibliae in medieval latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of western europe.

latin biblia sacra "holy books" translates greek ta biblia ta hagia, "the holy books".

the word itself had the literal meaning of "paper" or "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book".

it is the diminutive of ‚ byblos, "egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of the phoenician sea port byblos also known as gebal from whence egyptian papyrus was exported to greece.

the greek ta biblia lit.

"little papyrus books" was "an expression hellenistic jews used to describe their sacred books the septuagint .

christian use of the term can be traced to c. 223 ce.

the biblical scholar f.f.

bruce notes that chrysostom appears to be the first writer in his homilies on matthew, delivered between 386 and 388 to use the greek phrase ta biblia "the books" to describe both the old and new testaments together.

textual history by the 2nd century bce, jewish groups began calling the books of the bible the "scriptures" and they referred to them as "holy," or in hebrew kitvei hakkodesh , and christians now commonly call the old and new testaments of the christian bible "the holy bible" in greek , or "the holy scriptures" , e .

the bible was divided into chapters in the 13th century by stephen langton and it was divided into verses in the 16th century by french printer robert estienne and is now usually cited by book, chapter, and verse.

the oldest extant copy of a complete bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the vatican library, and it is known as the codex vaticanus.

the oldest copy of the tanakh in hebrew and aramaic dates from the 10th century ce.

the oldest copy of a complete latin vulgate bible is the codex amiatinus, dating from the 8th century.

development professor john k. riches, professor of divinity and biblical criticism at the university of glasgow, says that "the biblical texts themselves are the result of a creative dialogue between ancient traditions and different communities through the ages", and "the biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers political, cultural, economic, and ecological varied enormously".

timothy h. lim, a professor of hebrew bible and second temple judaism at the university of edinburgh, says that the old testament is "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing."

he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by god and passed to mankind.

parallel to the solidification of the hebrew canon c. 3rd century bce , only the torah first and then the tanakh began to be translated into greek and expanded, now referred to as the septuagint or the greek old testament.

in christian bibles, the new testament gospels were derived from oral traditions in the second half of the first century ce.

riches says that scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the gospels, but the results have not been too encouraging.

the period of transmission is short less than 40 years passed between the death of jesus and the writing of mark's gospel.

this means that there was little time for oral traditions to assume fixed form.

the bible was later translated into latin and other languages.

john riches states that the translation of the bible into latin marks the beginning of a parting of the ways between western latin-speaking christianity and eastern christianity, which spoke greek, syriac, coptic, ethiopic, and other languages.

the bibles of the eastern churches vary considerably the ethiopic orthodox canon includes 81 books and contains many apocalyptic texts, such as were found at qumran and subsequently excluded from the jewish canon.

as a general rule, one can say that the orthodox churches generally follow the septuagint in including more books in their old testaments than are in the jewish canon.

hebrew bible the masoretic text is the authoritative hebrew text of the hebrew bible, or tanakh.

it defines the books of the jewish canon, and also the precise letter-text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and accentuation.

the oldest extant manuscripts of the masoretic text date from approximately the 9th century ce, and the aleppo codex once the oldest complete copy of the masoretic text, but now missing its torah section dates from the 10th century.

the name tanakh hebrew " reflects the threefold division of the hebrew scriptures, torah "teaching" , nevi'im "prophets" and ketuvim "writings" .

torah the torah is also known as the "five books of moses" or the pentateuch, meaning "five scroll-cases".

the hebrew names of the books are derived from the first words in the respective texts.

the torah consists of the following five books genesis, beresheeth exodus, shemot leviticus, vayikra numbers, bamidbar “ deuteronomy, devarim “ the first eleven chapters of genesis provide accounts of the creation or ordering of the world and the history of god's early relationship with humanity.

the remaining thirty-nine chapters of genesis provide an account of god's covenant with the biblical patriarchs abraham, isaac and jacob also called israel and jacob's children, the "children of israel", especially joseph.

it tells of how god commanded abraham to leave his family and home in the city of ur, eventually to settle in the land of canaan, and how the children of israel later moved to egypt.

the remaining four books of the torah tell the story of moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs.

he leads the children of israel from slavery in ancient egypt to the renewal of their covenant with god at mount sinai and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of canaan.

the torah ends with the death of moses.

the torah contains the commandments of god, revealed at mount sinai although there is some debate among traditional scholars as to whether these were all written down at one time, or over a period of time during the 40 years of the wanderings in the desert, while several modern jewish movements reject the idea of a literal revelation, and critical scholars believe that many of these laws developed later in jewish history .

these commandments provide the basis for jewish religious law.

tradition states that there are 613 commandments taryag mitzvot .

nevi'im nevi'im hebrew ' , "prophets" is the second main division of the tanakh, between the torah and ketuvim.

it contains two sub-groups, the former prophets nevi'im rishonim , the narrative books of joshua, judges, samuel and kings and the latter prophets nevi'im aharonim — , the books of isaiah, jeremiah and ezekiel and the twelve minor prophets .

the nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the hebrew monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, ancient israel and judah, focusing on conflicts between the israelites and other nations, and conflicts among israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the lord god" and believers in foreign gods, and the criticism of unethical and unjust behaviour of israelite elites and rulers in which prophets played a crucial and leading role.

it ends with the conquest of the kingdom of israel by the assyrians followed by the conquest of the kingdom of judah by the babylonians and the destruction of the temple in jerusalem.

former prophets the former prophets are the books joshua, judges, samuel and kings.

they contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of moses with the divine appointment of joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of israel into the promised land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of judah.

treating samuel and kings as single books, they cover joshua's conquest of the land of canaan in the book of joshua , the struggle of the people to possess the land in the book of judges , the people's request to god to give them a king so that they can occupy the land in the face of their enemies in the books of samuel the possession of the land under the divinely appointed kings of the house of david, ending in conquest and foreign exile books of kings latter prophets the latter prophets are divided into two groups, the "major" prophets, isaiah, jeremiah, ezekiel, daniel, and the twelve minor prophets, collected into a single book.

the collection is broken up to form twelve individual books in the christian old testament, one for each of the prophets hosea, hoshea joel, yoel amos, amos obadiah, ovadyah “ jonah, yonah micah, mikhah nahum, nahum — habakkuk, havakuk — zephaniah, tsefanya haggai, khagay — ’ zechariah, zekharyah malachi, malakhi ketuvim ketuvim or in biblical hebrew "writings" is the third and final section of the tanakh.

the ketuvim are believed to have been written under the ruach hakodesh the holy spirit but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.

the poetic books in masoretic manuscripts and some printed editions , psalms, proverbs and job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry.

collectively, these three books are known as sifrei emet an acronym of the titles in hebrew, , , yields emet " , which is also the hebrew for "truth" .

these three books are also the only ones in tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses.

however, the beginning and end of the book of job are in the normal prose system.

the five scrolls hamesh megillot the five relatively short books of song of songs, book of ruth, the book of lamentations, ecclesiastes and book of esther are collectively known as the hamesh megillot five megillot .

these are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century ce.

other books besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in ketuvim are daniel, and chronicles.

although there is no formal grouping for these books in the jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics their narratives all openly describe relatively late events i.e., the babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of zion .

the talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.

two of them daniel and ezra are the only books in the tanakh with significant portions in aramaic.

order of the books the following list presents the books of ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions.

it also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of sifrei emet and hamesh megillot.

the three poetic books sifrei emet tehillim psalms mishlei book of proverbs book of job the five megillot hamesh megillot song of songs or song of solomon passover book of ruth eikhah lamentations ninth of av ecclesiastes book of esther other books book of daniel book of ezra-book of nehemiah divrei ha-yamim chronicles “ the jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in ketuvim.

the babylonian talmud bava batra 14b-15a gives their order as ruth, psalms, job, proverbs, ecclesiastes, song of solomon, lamentations of jeremiah, daniel, scroll of esther, ezra, chronicles.

in tiberian masoretic codices, including the aleppo codex and the leningrad codex, and often in old spanish manuscripts as well, the order is chronicles, psalms, job, proverbs, ruth, song of solomon, ecclesiastes, lamentations of jeremiah, esther, daniel, ezra.

canonization the ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon.

while the torah may have been considered canon by israel as early as the 5th century bce and the former and latter prophets were canonized by the 2nd century bce, the ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the common era.

evidence suggests, however, that the people of israel were adding what would become the ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets.

as early as 132 bce references suggest that the ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title.

references in the four gospels as well as other books of the new testament indicate that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century ce.

many scholars believe that the limits of the ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the council of jamnia c. 90 ce.

against apion, the writing of josephus in 95 ce, treated the text of the hebrew bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..." for a long time following this date the divine inspiration of esther, the song of songs, and ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.

original languages the tanakh was mainly written in biblical hebrew, with some small portions ezra 4 18 and 7 , jeremiah 10 11, daniel 2 28 written in biblical aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca for much of the semitic world.

septuagint the septuagint, or the lxx, is a translation of the hebrew scriptures and some related texts into koine greek, begun in the late 3rd century bce and completed by 132 bce, initially in alexandria, but in time it was completed elsewhere as well.

it is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.

as the work of translation progressed, the canon of the greek bible expanded.

the torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it.

in addition, some newer books were included in the septuagint, among these are the maccabees and the wisdom of sirach.

however, the book of sirach, is now known to have existed in a hebrew version, since ancient hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern times.

the septuagint version of some biblical books, like daniel and esther, are longer than those in the jewish canon.

some of these deuterocanonical books e.g.

the wisdom of solomon, and the second book of maccabees were not translated, but composed directly in greek.

since late antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st-century council of jamnia, mainstream rabbinic judaism rejected the septuagint as valid jewish scriptural texts.

several reasons have been given for this.

first, some mistranslations were claimed.

second, the hebrew source texts used for the septuagint differed from the masoretic tradition of hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the jewish rabbis.

third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of christianity.

finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the hebrew language, in contrast to aramaic or greek even though these languages were the lingua franca of jews during this period and aramaic would eventually be given a holy language status comparable to hebrew .

the septuagint is the basis for the old latin, slavonic, syriac, old armenian, old georgian and coptic versions of the christian old testament.

the roman catholic and eastern orthodox churches use most of the books of the septuagint, while protestant churches usually do not.

after the protestant reformation, many protestant bibles began to follow the jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called biblical apocrypha.

the apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the king james version of the bible, the basis for the revised standard version.

incorporations from theodotion in most ancient copies of the bible which contain the septuagint version of the old testament, the book of daniel is not the original septuagint version, but instead is a copy of theodotion's translation from the hebrew, which more closely resembles the masoretic text.

the septuagint version was discarded in favour of theodotion's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries ce.

in greek-speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in latin-speaking areas at least in north africa , it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century.

history does not record the reason for this, and st. jerome reports, in the preface to the vulgate version of daniel, "this thing 'just' happened."

one of two old greek texts of the book of daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.

the canonical is known in the septuagint as "esdras b", and 1 esdras is "esdras a".

1 esdras is a very similar text to the books of , and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text.

it has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "esdras b" the canonical is theodotion's version of this material, and "esdras a" is the version which was previously in the septuagint on its own.

final form some texts are found in the septuagint but are not present in the hebrew.

these additional books are tobit, judith, wisdom of solomon, wisdom of jesus son of sirach, baruch, the letter of jeremiah which later became chapter 6 of baruch in the vulgate , additions to daniel the prayer of azarias, the song of the three children, susanna and bel and the dragon , additions to esther, 1 maccabees, 2 maccabees, 3 maccabees, 4 maccabees, 1 esdras, odes, including the prayer of manasseh, the psalms of solomon, and psalm 151.

some books that are set apart in the masoretic text are grouped together.

for example, the books of samuel and the books of kings are in the lxx one book in four parts called "of reigns" .

in lxx, the books of chronicles supplement reigns and it is called paralipomenon left out .

the septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one book of twelve.

christian bibles a christian bible is a set of books that a christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture.

although the early church primarily used the septuagint or the targums among aramaic speakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures instead the canon of the new testament developed over time.

groups within christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.

significant versions of the english christian bible include the douay-rheims bible, the authorized king james version, the english revised version, the american standard version, the revised standard version, the new american standard version, the new king james version, the new international version, and the english standard version.

old testament the books which make up the christian old testament differ between the catholic see catholic bible , orthodox, and protestant see protestant bible churches, with the protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the hebrew bible, while catholics and orthodox have wider canons.

a few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the greek septuagint and the aramaic peshitta.

apocryphal or deuterocanonical books in eastern christianity, translations based on the septuagint still prevail.

the septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th-century masoretic text as the basis for translations of the old testament into western languages.

some modern western translations since the 14th century make use of the septuagint to clarify passages in the masoretic text, where the septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the hebrew text.

they also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g., those discovered among the dead sea scrolls.

a number of books which are part of the peshitta or the greek septuagint but are not found in the hebrew rabbinic bible i.e., among the protocanonical books are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by roman catholics referring to a later secondary i.e., deutero canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the council of trent .

it includes 46 books for the old testament 45 if jeremiah and lamentations are counted as one and 27 for the new.

most protestants term these books as apocrypha.

modern protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although protestant bibles included them in apocrypha sections until the 1820s.

however, roman catholic and eastern orthodox churches include these books as part of their old testament.

the roman catholic church recognizes tobit judith 1 maccabees 2 maccabees wisdom sirach or ecclesiasticus baruch the letter of jeremiah baruch chapter 6 greek additions to esther book of esther, chapters 10 4 12 6 the prayer of azariah and song of the three holy children verses book of daniel, chapter 3, verses susanna book of daniel, chapter 13 bel and the dragon book of daniel, chapter 14 in addition to those, the greek and russian orthodox churches recognize the following 3 maccabees 1 esdras prayer of manasseh psalm 151 russian and georgian orthodox churches include 2 esdras i.e., latin esdras in the russian and georgian bibles there is also 4 maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the georgian church, but was included by st. jerome in an appendix to the vulgate, and is an appendix to the greek orthodox bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the apocrypha.

the syriac orthodox tradition includes psalms the apocalypse of baruch the letter of baruch the ethiopian biblical canon includes jubilees enoch meqabyan and some other books.

the anglican church uses some of the apocryphal books liturgically.

therefore, editions of the bible intended for use in the anglican church include the deuterocanonical books accepted by the catholic church, plus 1 esdras, 2 esdras and the prayer of manasseh, which were in the vulgate appendix.

pseudepigraphal books the term pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous works of jewish religious literature written from about 300 bce to 300 ce.

not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical.

it also refers to books of the new testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented.

the "old testament" pseudepigraphal works include the following 3 maccabees 4 maccabees assumption of moses ethiopic book of enoch 1 enoch slavonic book of enoch 2 enoch hebrew book of enoch 3 enoch also known as "the revelation of metatron" or "the book of rabbi ishmael the high priest" book of jubilees syriac apocalypse of baruch 2 baruch letter of aristeas letter to philocrates regarding the translating of the hebrew scriptures into greek life of adam and eve martyrdom and ascension of isaiah psalms of solomon sibylline oracles greek apocalypse of baruch 3 baruch testaments of the twelve patriarchs book of enoch notable pseudepigraphal works include the books of enoch such as 1 enoch, 2 enoch, surviving only in old slavonic, and 3 enoch, surviving in hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century ce .

these are ancient jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet enoch, the great-grandfather of the patriarch noah.

they are not part of the biblical canon used by jews, apart from beta israel.

most christian denominations and traditions may accept the books of enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance.

it has been observed that part of the book of enoch is quoted in the epistle of jude part of the new testament but christian denominations generally regard the books of enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired.

however, the enoch books are treated as canonical by the ethiopian orthodox tewahedo church and eritrean orthodox tewahedo church.

the older sections mainly in the book of the watchers are estimated to date from about 300 bc, and the latest part book of parables probably was composed at the end of the 1st century bce.

denominational views of pseudepigrapha there arose in some protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by protestants and catholics.

these works were also outside the particular set of books that roman catholics called deuterocanonical and to which protestants had generally applied the term apocryphal.

accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both protestants and roman catholics allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion , may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience.

to confuse the matter even more, eastern orthodox christians accept books as canonical that roman catholics and most protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority.

there exist also churches that reject some of the books that roman catholics, orthodox and protestants accept.

the same is true of some jewish sects.

many works that are "apocryphal" are otherwise considered genuine.

role of the old testament in christian theology the old testament has always been central to the life of the christian church.

bible scholar n.t.

wright says "jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures."

he adds that the earliest christians also searched those same hebrew scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of jesus.

they regarded the "holy writings" of the israelites as necessary and instructive for the christian, as seen from paul's words to timothy 2 timothy 3 15 , and as pointing to the messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulfillment in jesus himself, generating the "new covenant" prophesied by jeremiah.

new testament the new testament is the name given to the second and final portion of the christian bible.

jesus is its central figure.

the term "new testament" came into use in the second century during a controversy among christians over whether or not the hebrew bible should be included with the christian writings as sacred scripture.

the new testament presupposes the inspiration of the old testament.

some other works which were widely read by early churches were excluded from the new testament and relegated to the collections known as the apostolic fathers generally considered orthodox and the new testament apocrypha including both orthodox and heretical works .

most christians consider the new testament to be an infallible source of doctrine, while others go even farther to affirm that it is also inerrant, or completely correct in historical and factual details as well as theologically.

in recent times, however, the authority of the new testament books has been challenged.

the school of historical criticism has exposed various apparent contradictions within the texts, as well as questions of authorship and dating.

the new testament is a collection of 27 books of 4 different genres of christian literature gospels, one account of the acts of the apostles, epistles and an apocalypse .

these books can be grouped into the new testament books are ordered differently in the catholic orthodox protestant tradition, the slavonic tradition, the syriac tradition and the ethiopian tradition.

original language the mainstream consensus is that the new testament was written in a form of koine greek, which was the common language of the eastern mediterranean from the conquests of alexander the great bce until the evolution of byzantine greek c. 600 .

historic editions the original autographs, that is, the original greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of the new testament, have not survived.

but historically copies exist of those original autographs, transmitted and preserved in a number of manuscript traditions.

there have been some minor variations, additions or omissions, in some of the texts.

when ancient scribes copied earlier books, they sometimes wrote notes on the margins of the page marginal glosses to correct their if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or to comment about the text.

when later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text.

over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions and additions.

the three main textual traditions of the greek new testament are sometimes called the alexandrian text-type generally minimalist , the byzantine text-type generally maximalist , and the western text-type occasionally wild .

together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.

development of the christian canons the old testament canon entered into christian use in the greek septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts.

in addition to the septuagint, christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the new testament.

somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity.

in the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39, 46 51, 54, or 57-book canon of the old testament and to the 27-book canon of the new testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the synod of hippo in 393 ce.

also c. 400, jerome produced a definitive latin edition of the bible see vulgate , the canon of which, at the insistence of the pope, was in accord with the earlier synods.

with the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the new testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time.

the protestant old testament of today has a 39-book number of books though not the content varies from the jewish tanakh only because of a different method of the roman catholic church recognizes 46 books 51 books with some books combined into 46 books as the canonical old testament.

the eastern orthodox churches recognize 3 maccabees, 1 esdras, prayer of manasseh and psalm 151 in addition to the catholic canon.

some include 2 esdras.

the anglican church also recognizes a longer canon.

the term "hebrew scriptures" is often used as being synonymous with the protestant old testament, since the surviving scriptures in hebrew include only those books, while catholics and orthodox include additional texts that have not survived in hebrew.

both catholics and protestants as well as greek orthodox have the same 27-book new testament canon.

the new testament writers assumed the inspiration of the old testament, probably earliest stated in 2 timothy 3 16, "all scripture is given by inspiration of god".

ethiopian orthodox canon the canon of the ethiopian orthodox tewahedo church is wider than the canons used by most other christian churches.

there are 81 books in the ethiopian orthodox bible.

the ethiopian old testament canon includes the books found in the septuagint accepted by other orthodox christians, in addition to enoch and jubilees which are ancient jewish books that only survived in ge'ez but are quoted in the new testament, also greek ezra first and the apocalypse of ezra, 3 books of meqabyan, and psalm 151 at the end of the psalter.

the three books of meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of maccabees.

the order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well.

the old testament follows the septuagint order for the minor prophets rather than the jewish order.

divine inspiration the second epistle to timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of god, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness".

2 timothy 3 16 various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include the view of the bible as the inspired word of god the belief that god, through the holy spirit, intervened and influenced the words, message, and collation of the bible the view that the bible is also infallible, and incapable of error in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientific matters the view that the bible represents the inerrant word of god, without error in any aspect, spoken by god and written down in its perfect form by humans within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate.

"bible scholars claim that discussions about the bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture."

fundamentalist christians are associated with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.

jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts, and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of christian writings.

various texts of the bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings.

in their book a general introduction to the bible, norman geisler and william nix write "the process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of god, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."

most evangelical biblical scholars associate inspiration with only the original text for example some american protestants adhere to the 1978 chicago statement on biblical inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of scripture.

among adherents of biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the king-james-only movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular translation.

versions and translations the original texts of the tanakh were mainly in hebrew, with some portions in aramaic.

in addition to the authoritative masoretic text, jews still refer to the septuagint, the translation of the hebrew bible into greek, and the targum onkelos, an aramaic version of the bible.

there are several different ancient versions of the tanakh in hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional jewish version is based on the version known as aleppo codex.

even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.

the primary biblical text for early christians was the septuagint.

in addition, they translated the hebrew bible into several other languages.

translations were made into syriac, coptic, ethiopic, and latin, among other languages.

the latin translations were historically the most important for the church in the west, while the greek-speaking east continued to use the septuagint translations of the old testament and had no need to translate the new testament.

the earliest latin translation was the old latin text, or vetus latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time.

it was based on the septuagint, and thus included books not in the hebrew bible.

according to the latin decretum gelasianum also known as the gelasian decree , thought to be of a 6th-century document of uncertain authorship and of pseudepigraphal papal authority variously ascribed to pope gelasius i, pope damasus i, or pope hormisdas but reflecting the views of the roman church by that period, the council of rome in 382 ad under pope damasus i 366-383 assembled a list of books of the bible.

damasus commissioned saint jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original greek and hebrew texts into latin.

this translation became known as the latin vulgate bible, in the fourth century ad although jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non-canonical .

and in 1546, at the council of trent, jerome's vulgate translation was declared by the roman catholic church to be the only authentic and official bible in the latin church.

since the protestant reformation, bible translations for many languages have been made.

the bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by christian organizations such as wycliffe bible translators, new tribes mission and bible societies.

views john riches, professor of divinity and biblical criticism at the university of glasgow, provides the following view of the diverse historical influences of the bible it has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art it has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses of human savagery, self-interest, and narrow-mindedness.

it has inspired men and women to acts of great service and courage, to fight for liberation and human development and it has provided the ideological fuel for societies which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty.

it has, perhaps above all, provided a source of religious and moral norms which have enabled communities to hold together, to care for, and to protect one another yet precisely this strong sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic, racial, and international tension and conflict.

other religions in islam, the bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from god but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted in arabic tahrif which necessitated the giving of the qur'an to the islamic prophet, muhammad, to correct this deviation.

members of other religions may also seek inspiration from the bible.

for example, rastafaris view the bible as essential to their religion and unitarian universalists view it as "one of many important religious texts".

biblical studies biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention.

it is not the same as criticism of the bible, which is an assertion against the bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the bible may have translation errors.

higher criticism in the 17th century thomas hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that moses could not have written the bulk of the torah.

shortly afterwards the philosopher baruch spinoza published a unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the pentateuch was not written by moses .

archaeological and historical research biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the hebrew scriptures and the christian greek scriptures or the "new testament" .

it is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times.

there are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology.

one broad division includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the view that most of the old testament or the hebrew bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time.

it is considered to be the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the bible to be a purely post-exilic 5th century bce and later composition.

even among those scholars who adhere to biblical minimalism, the bible is a historical document containing first-hand information on the hellenistic and roman eras, and there is universal scholarly consensus that the events of the 6th century bce babylonian captivity have a basis in history.

the historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient israel and judah of the 10th to 7th centuries bce is disputed in scholarship.

the biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries bce is widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the united monarchy 10th century bce and the historicity of david is unclear.

archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the tel dan stele, can potentially be decisive.

the biblical account of events of the exodus from egypt in the torah, and the migration to the promised land and the period of judges are not considered historical in scholarship.

gallery bibles illustrations most old bibles were illuminated, they were manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders marginalia and miniature illustrations.

up to the twelfth century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron.

larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where little rooms were assigned to book copying they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk.

by the fourteenth century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria, especially in paris, rome and the netherlands.

demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators.

these individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day.

the manuscript was to the rubricator, who added in red or other colours the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on and then if the book was to be illustrated it was sent to the illuminator.

in the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe or the agent, but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation.

bible illustrations see also bible box bible case bible paper biblical software code of hammurabi list of major biblical figures scriptorium theodicy and the bible endnotes references and further reading vir singh or veer singh 5 december 1872 in amritsar 10 june 1957 in amritsar was a poet, scholar, and theologian of the sikh revival movement, playing an important part in the renewal of punjabi literary tradition.

contributions were so important and influential that he became canonized as bhai, an honorific often given to those whom could be considered a saint of the sikh faith.

family and personal life born in 1872, in amritsar, bhai veer singh was the eldest of dr. charan singh's three sons.

vir family could trace its ancestry as far back as to diwan kaura mal, a vice-governor maharaja bahadur of the city multan.

his grandfather, kahn singh 1788-1878 , spent a great deal of his youth training and learning traditional sikh lessons in monasteries.

fluent in sanskrit and braj, as well as in the oriental systems of medicine such as ayurveda, siddha and yunani , kahn singh influenced his only son, dr. charan singh, who later fathered vir singh, to become an active member of the sikh community, often producing poetry, music, and writings in hopes of restoring the sikh community.

at seventeen, bhai vir singh himself married chatar kaur and had two daughters with her.

he died in amritsar on 10 june 1957.

education singh had the benefit of both the traditional indigenous learning as well as of modern english education.

he learnt sikh scripture as well as persian, urdu and sanskrit.

he then joined the church mission school, amritsar and took his matriculation examination in 1891 and stood first all over in the district.

singh received his secondary education at church mission high school, and it was while attending school that the conversion of some of his classmates from sikhism to christianity that singh's own religious convictions toward sikhism were fortified.

influenced by the christian missionaries' use of and reference to literary sources, singh got the idea to teach others the main dogmas of sikhism through his own written resources.

using the skills and techniques in modern literary forms that he learned through his english courses, singh produced stories, poems, and epics and recorded the history and philosophical ideas of sikhism.

literary career beginnings singh chose to become a writer.

after passing his matriculation examination, he worked with a friend of his , wazir singh, and set up a lithography press.

his first commission to write and print were geography textbooks for some schools.

language politics singh argued that sikhism was a unique religion which could be nourished and sustained by creating an awakening amongst the sikhs of the awareness of their distinct theological and cultural identity.

he aimed at reorienting the sikhs' understanding of their faith in such a manner as to help them assimilate the different modernising influences to their historical memory and cultural heritage.

at the time, sikhs were often persecuted by the british and hindus, often being pressured or threatened into assimilating into mainstream culture.

acts such as publicly shaving off the heads and beards of religious sikh officials were performed to humiliate and demean the sikh religion.

amidst all this political discontent, singh sought to revitilize the sikh culture and religion through peaceful means, by writing a myriad of novels, epics, and poems.

with the fall of the sikh empire and the modernization of christian, muslim, and hindu movements of proselytism, the sikh faith began to wane until scholars and theologians of the religions, singh being a leading one, began revitalizing life into sikhism through their works of literature.

works singh began taking an active interest in the affairs of the singh sabha movement.

to promote its aims and objects, he launched the khalsa tract society in 1894.

the tracts produced by the khalsa tract society introduced a new style of literary punjabi.

the khalsa tract society periodically made available under the title nirguniara, low-cost publications on sikh theology, history and philosophy and on social and religious reform.

through this journal, singh established contact with an ever-expanding circle of readers.

he used the nirguniara as a vehicle for his own self-expression.

some of his major creative works such as sri guru nanak chamatkar and sri guru kalgidhar chamatkar, were originally serialised in its columns.

in literature, singh started as a writer of romances which are considered forerunners of the punjabi novel.

his writings in this genre sundari 1898 , bijay singh 1899 , satwant kaur published in two parts, i in 1900 and ii in 1927 , were aimed at recreating the heroic period eighteenth century of sikh history.

through these novels he made available to his readers, models of courage, fortitude and human dignity.

singh championed the sikh identity in a way that did not devalue other religions.

he even reprimanded the violation and destruction the hindu idols in kashmir in his book, avantipur de khandar.

singh also criticized and discouraged religious fanaticism, citing those as victims of their own fears brought on by a fervent and obsessive belief.

the novel subhagji da sudhar hathin baba naudh singh, popularly known as baba naudh singh serialised in nirguniara from 1907 onwards and published in book form in 1921 , shares with the epic rana surat singh which he had started serialising in 1905 vir singh's interest in the theme of a widow's desperate urge for a reunion with her dead husband.

soon after the publication of rana surat singh in book form in 1919, he turned to shorter poems and lyrics.

these included dil tarang 1920 , tarel tupke 1921 , lahiran de har 1921 , matak hulare 1922 , bijlian de har 1927 and mere sayian jio 1953 .

through these works, he paved the way for the emergence of the punjabi poem.

in november 1899, he started a punjabi weekly, the khalsa samachar.

he revised and enlarged giani hazara singh's dictionary, sri guru granth kosh, originally published in 1898.

the revised version was published in 1927.

he published critical editions of some of the old sikh texts such as sikhan di bhagat mala 1912 , prachin panth prakash 1914 , puratan janam sakhi 1926 and sakhi pothi 1950 .

an important work was singh's annotation of santokh singh's sri gur pratap suraj granth, published from 1927 to 1935 in fourteen volumes.

role of women in writings unlike most of the popular religions, sikhism stresses the equality between men and women and that it is even sinful to consider either sex above the other.

singh reflected this belief in his novels, and featured them in a number of strong female characters.

in fact, his very first novel was sundari, which featured sunder kaur, a woman who converted from hinduism to sikhism and then proceeded to lead a life of adventure in the jungles with a band of sikh warriors.

it was the first novel penned in the punjabi language.

through sundari, singh hoped to embody all the ideals of guru lessons.

the book was well received by the sikh community and gained popularity almost immediately.

other important female characters he wrote were rani raj kaur, satvant kaur, subhagji and sushil kaur.

even by today's modern standards, these female characters are still considered to be well rounded and an inspiration to both male and female sikhs alike.

bhai vir singh went even as far as often portraying the women in his novels as more prone to spiritual enlightenment than her male counterpart.

punjab & sind bank bhai vir singh was one of the founders of the punjab & sind bank.

awards he was honoured with the sahitya akademi award in 1955 and the padma bhushan award in 1956.

posthumous recognition the portion of his commentary on the adi granth nearly one half of the holy book he had completed was published posthumously in seven large volumes.

bibliography references see also surjit patar ajit cour further reading encyclopaedia of sikhism edited by harbans singh.

bhai vir singh life, times and works by gurbachan singh talib and attar singh, ed., chandigarh, 1973 bhai vir singh by harbans singh, delhi, 1972 bhai vir singh poet of the sikhs by harbans singh and gurbachan singh talib bhai sahib bhai vir singh ji books mp3 audio and pdf books bhai vir singh books mp3 audio of books sundari read sundari book in english intensive farming or intensive agriculture is any of various types of agriculture that involve higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area.

it is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour, and higher crop yields per unit land area.

this is in contrast to traditional agriculture in which the inputs per unit land are lower.

the term "intensive" has various senses, some of which refer to organic farming methods such as biointensive agriculture and french intensive gardening and others of which refer to nonorganic and industrial methods.

intensive animal farming involves either large numbers of animals raised on limited land, usually confined animal feeding operations cafo often referred to as factory farms, or managed intensive rotational grazing mirg , which has both organic and nonorganic types.

both increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to traditional animal husbandry.

in cafo feed is brought to the seldom-moved animals, while in mirg the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage.

most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways.

forms that rely especially heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture, which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield.

techniques include planting multiple crops per year, reducing the frequency of fallow years, and improving cultivars.

it also involves increased use of fertilizers, plant growth regulators, pesticides and mechanised agriculture, controlled by increased and more detailed analysis of growing conditions, including weather, soil, water, weeds and pests.

this system is supported by ongoing innovation in agricultural machinery and farming methods, genetic technology, techniques for achieving economies of scale, logistics, and data collection and analysis technology.

intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide.

most of the meat, dairy, eggs, fruits and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms.

smaller intensive farms usually include higher inputs of labor and more often use sustainable intensive methods.

the farming practices commonly found on such farms are referred to as appropriate technology.

these farms are less widespread in both developed countries and worldwide, but are growing more rapidly.

most of the food available in specialty markets such as farmers markets is produced by these smallholder farms.

history agricultural development in britain between the 16th century and the mid-19th century saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output.

this in turn supported unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped enable the industrial revolution.

historians cited enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation, and selective breeding as the most important innovations.

industrial agriculture arose along with the industrial revolution.

by the early 19th century, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and cultivars had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the middle ages.

the industrialization phase involved a continuing process of mechanization.

horse-drawn machinery such as the mccormick reaper revolutionized harvesting, while inventions such as the cotton gin reduced the cost of processing.

during this same period, farmers began to use steam-powered threshers and tractors, although they were expensive and dangerous.

in 1892, the first gasoline-powered tractor was successfully developed, and in 1923, the international harvester farmall tractor became the first all-purpose tractor, marking an inflection point in the replacement of draft animals with machines.

mechanical harvesters combines , planters, transplanters and other equipment were then developed, further revolutionizing agriculture.

these inventions increased yields and allowed individual farmers to manage increasingly large farms.

the identification of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus npk as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers, further increasing crop yields.

in 1909 the haber-bosch method to synthesize ammonium nitrate was first demonstrated.

npk fertilizers stimulated the first concerns about industrial agriculture, due to concerns that they came with serious side effects such as soil compaction, soil erosion and declines in overall soil fertility, along with health concerns about toxic chemicals entering the food supply.

the identification of carbon as a critical factor in plant growth and soil health, particularly in the form of humus, led to so-called sustainable agriculture, alternative forms of intensive agriculture that also surpass traditional agriculture, without side effects or health issues.

farmers adopting this approach were initially referred to as humus farmers, later as organic farmers.

the discovery of vitamins and their role in nutrition, in the first two decades of the 20th century, led to vitamin supplements, which in the 1920s allowed some livestock to be raised indoors, reducing their exposure to adverse natural elements.

chemicals developed for use in world war ii gave rise to synthetic pesticides.

following world war ii, synthetic fertilizer use increased rapidly, while sustainable intensive farming advanced much more slowly.

most of the resources in developed nations went to improving industrial intensive farming, and very little went to improving organic farming.

thus, particularly in the developed nations, industrial intensive farming grew to become the dominant form of agriculture.

the discovery of antibiotics and vaccines facilitated raising livestock in cafos by reducing diseases caused by crowding.

developments in logistics and refrigeration as well as processing technology made long-distance distribution feasible.

between 1700 and 1980, "the total area of cultivated land worldwide increased 466%" and yields increased dramatically, particularly because of selectively bred high-yielding varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and machinery.

global agricultural production doubled between 1820 1920 between 1920 and 1950 between 1950 and 1965 and again between 1965 and 1975 to feed a global population that grew from one billion in 1800 to 6.5 billion in 2002.

the number of people involved in farming in industrial countries dropped, from 24 percent of the american population to 1.5 percent in 2002.